Chapter 4: Preventing Injuries Through Fitness Training

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Chapter 4 Preventing Injuries Through Fitness
Training
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• Fitness is critical for performance and injury
  prevention
• Improper conditioning is a major cause in sports
  related injuries
• Areas of concern
• Flexibility
• Muscular strength, endurance, power
• Cardiorespiratory endurance
• Coaches need to develop programs that focus on
  injury prevention and performance enhancement

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Periodization in Training and Conditioning

• Traditional seasons no longer exist for serious
  athletes
• Periodization
• Achieve peak performance
• Decrease injuries and overtraining
• Program that spans various seasons
• Modify program relative to athletes needs

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Year Round Training Cycle

• Complete training cycle
• Seasonal approach based on preseason, in-season,
  and off-season
• Changes in intensity, volume, specificity of
  training occur in order to achieve peak levels of
  fitness for competition
• Broken into periods or phases (lasting weeks or
  months)

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Periods or Phases

• Transition period
• Follows last competition (early off-season)
• Unstructured (escape rigors of training)
• Preparatory period
• Off-season
• Hypertropy/endurance phase (Low intensity with
  high volume)
• Allows for development of endurance base
• Lasts several weeks to 2 months

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• Preparatory period (continued)
• Strength Phase
• Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels
• Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)
• Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery
• Competition period
• May last a lt week or several months for seasonal
  sports
• High intensity, low volume, skill training
  sessions
• May incorporate weekly training cycles (1-7 days)
• Designed to ensure peak on days of competition

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Cross Training

• Training for a sport with substitutions of
  alternative activities (carryover value)
• Useful in transition and preparatory periods
• Variety to training regimen
• Should be discontinued prior to preseason as it
  is not sport-specific

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Principles of Conditioning and Training

• Warm-up/Cool-down
• Motivation
• Overload and SAID principle
• Consistency/ routine
• Progression

• Intensity
• Specificity
• Individuality
• Relaxation/ Minimize Stress
• Safety

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Warm-up

• Precaution against unnecessary musculoskeletal
  injury and soreness
• May enhance certain aspects of performance
• Prepares body physiologically for physical work
• Stimulates cardiorespiratory system, enhancing
  circulation and blood flow to muscles
• Increases metabolic processes, core temperature,
  and muscle elasticity

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• General
• Activities which bring a general warming to the
  body(break a sweat)
• Not related to sport
• Specific
• Specific to sport
• Stretching, jogging, running, throwing, catching
• Should last 10-15 minutes resulting in effects
  that will last 45 minutes

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Cool-down

• Essential component of workout
• Bring body back to resting state
• 5-10 minutes in duration
• Often ignored
• Decreased muscle soreness following training if
  time used to stretch after workout

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Why is it important to have good flexibility?

• Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a
  full range of motion (ROM)
• Decreased ROM results in
• Decreased performance capabilities
• Uncoordinated/awkward movements
• Predisposes athlete to injury
• Good flexibility is essential for successful
  physical performance
• Recommended by athletic trainers to prevent
  injury

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Factors That Limit Flexibility

• Bony structures
• Tissue approximation
• Excessive fat
• Muscle and tendon lengths
• Connective tissue
• Scarring and contractures
• Skin

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Range of Motion(ROM)

• Active range of motion dynamic flexibility
• Ability to move a joint with little resistance
• Passive range of motion static flexibility
• Motion of joint to end points without muscle
  contraction
• Must be able to move through unrestricted range
• Must have elasticity for additional stretch
  encountered during activity

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Agonist vs. Antagonist Muscles

• Joints are capable of multiple movements
• Example
• Quadriceps will extend knee with contraction
• Hamstrings will stretch during extension
• Quads (muscle producing movement) referred to as
  agonist
• Muscle undergoing stretch referred to as
  antagonist
• Agonist and antagonist work together to produce
  smooth coordinated movements

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Stretching Techniques

• Ballistic
• Bouncing movement in which repetitive
  contractions of agonist work to stretch
  antagonist muscle
• While effective in improving flexibility, caution
  should be exercised
• Possible soreness (soccer example)

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• Static stretching
• Passively stretching
• 20-30 second hold optimal
• Go to point of pain and back off and hold for 30
  seconds (3 to 4 times)
• Controlled, less chance of injury
• Not dynamic
• Should precede ballistic stretching

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• Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
• Contract-relax
• Hold-relax
• Ten second push, ten second relax
• Best technique to improve flexibility
• Technique that involves combination of
  alternating contractions and relaxation of both
  agonist and antagonists

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Assessment of Flexibility

• Various devices have been designed to accommodate
  joint sizes and complexities of movement
• Goniometer most widely used device
• Can also utilize the following tests
• Trunk hip flexion test
• Trunk extension test
• Shoulder extension test

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Is there a relationship between strength and
flexibility?

• Co-exist
• Muscle bound zero flexibility
• Strength training will provide individual with
  ability to develop dynamic flexibility through
  full range of motion
• Develop more powerful and coordinated movements

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Flexibility, Muscular Strength, Endurance, and
Power
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Muscle Strength, Power, and Endurance

• Strength ability to generate force against
  resistance
• Muscular endurance repetitive muscular
  contractions (increase strength increase
  endurance)
• Power the relationship between strength and time

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Muscle Contractions

• Isometric contraction
• No length change occurs during contraction
• Isotonic contraction
• Concentric- shortening of muscle with contraction
  in an effort to overcome more resistance
• Eccentric - lengthening of muscle with
  contraction because load is greater than force
  being produced
• Both are considered dynamic movements

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Factors that Determine Levels of Muscular Strength

• Size of muscle
• Function of diameter and of muscle fibers
• Hypertrophy vs. Atrophy
• Number of muscle fibers
• Neuromuscular efficiency
• Initial gains are due to increased efficiency
• More effectively engage specific motor units
• Biomechanical factors
• Bones and muscles Levers and pulleys

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• Fast-Twitch vs. Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
• Motor units with distinct metabolic and
  contractile capability
• Individual make-up
• Muscles contain both types of fibers
• Muscle functioning impacts ratios (postural vs.
  powerful movement)
• Genetically determined
• Slow twitch (Type I)
• Generally major constituent of postural muscles
• Fast twitch (Type II)
• High force in short amount of time
• Produce powerful movements

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• Levels of Physical Activity
• Will influence increase/decrease in muscle
  strength
• Also impacts cardiorespiratory fitness,
  flexibility and increases in body fat
• Overtraining
• Psychological and physiological breakdown
• Signs
• Apathy, loss of appetite, staleness, declines in
  performance, weight loss, inability to sleep
• Prevent through appropriate training protocol,
  proper diet, and rest

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What physiological changes occur to cause
increased strength?

• Multiple theories of muscle hypertrophy
• Primary explanation of muscle hypertrophy
• Increase in protein myofilament number and size
• Continued need for additional research

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Core Stabilization Training

• Core refers to muscles that make up center of
  body
• Low back, pelvis, hips, abdomen
• Works to stabilize body enabling muscles of
  extremity to function optimally
• Weak core is a fundamental problem of inefficient
  movements injury
• Program targets strength, neuromuscular control,
  power, and endurance of the core
• Program will stress multiple planes and
  incorporate various resistance techniques

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Techniques of Resistance Training

• Progressive resistance exercise
• Overload principle must be applied
• Must work muscle at increasingly higher
  intensities to enhance strength over time
• If intensity of training does not increase, but
  training continues, muscle strength will be
  sustained

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Isometric Exercise

• Contraction where muscle length remains unchanged
• Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds and
  should be perform 5-10 times/daily
• Pro quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab
• Con only works at one point in ROM, produces
  spiking of blood pressure due to Valsalva
  maneuver

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• Concentric and eccentric training should be
  incorporated for greatest strength improvement
• Concentric phase of lift should last 1-2 seconds
  eccentric phase 2-4 seconds
• Variations exist between free and machine weight
  lifting
• Motion restrictions, levels of muscular control
  required, amount of weight that can be lifted
• Equipment design, varying resistances

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Progressive Resistance Exercise Techniques

• Terminology associated with weight training
• Repetitions
• Repetition maximum
• One repetition maximum
• Set
• Intensity
• Recovery period
• Frequency

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• When training should be able to perform 3 sets of
  6-8 repetitions
• Increases should occur in increments of 10
• 1 RM can be utilized to measure maximum amount of
  weight that can be lifted - must be very careful
• Training of a particular muscle group should
  occur 3-4 times per week (not on successive days)

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Muscular Endurance vs. Strength

• Training for endurance enhances strength and vice
  versa
• Training for strength should involve lower
  repetitions at heavier weight
• Training for endurance requires lower weight at
  12-15 repetitions

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Open vs. Closed Kinetic Chain Exercises

• Anatomical functional relationship for upper and
  lower extremities
• OKC
• When foot or hand are not in contact with the
  ground or supporting surface
• CKC
• Foot or hand are weight bearing
• Widely used more functional

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Isokinetic Training

• Muscle contraction at a constant velocity
• Maximal and constant resistance throughout the
  full range of motion
• Maximal effort Maximal strength gains
• Rehab
• Never widely used in strength training
• Losing popularity in rehabilitation settings

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Circuit Training

• Combination of exercise stations
• 8 - 12 stations, 3 times through
• Design for different training goals
• Flexibility
• Calisthenics
• Aerobic exercise

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Plyometric Exercise

• Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction followed by
  a rapid concentric contraction to create a
  forceful explosive movement
• Rate of stretch vs. magnitude
• Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws
• Very technical training - skills must be learned
  with appropriate technique
• Often develop muscle soreness as a result of
  extensive eccentric loading

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Training for the Female Athlete

• Critical for female athlete
• Significant hypertrophy is related to
  testosterone present within body
• Remarkable gains are experienced initially due to
  enhanced nervous system and muscle interaction
  (efficiency-not muscle bulk)
• Following initial gains, plateau occurs, with
  females

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• Males tend to continue to increase strength with
  training
• Critical difference is the ratio of strength to
  body fat
• Females have reduced strength to body weight
  ratio due to higher percentage of body fat
• Ratio can be enhanced through weight training and
  decrease in body fat percentage/increased lean
  weight

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Cardiorespiratory Endurance

• Perform whole body activities for extended period
  of time
• Performance vs. fatigue vs. injury
• Aerobic exercise
• Low intensity exercise that can be sustained for
  a long period of time
• Anaerobic exercise
• Activity where intensity is so high that demand
  for oxygen is greater than bodys ability to
  deliver

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• Systems
• four components
• Heart
• Lungs
• Blood vessels
• Blood
• Improvements in endurance are the results of
  improvements in these 4 components

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Impact on Heart

• Main pumping mechanism
• Increase exercise increased oxygen requirement
  increase heart pumping
• Heart able to adapt through increases in heart
  rate and stroke volume which will enhance overall
  cardiac output
• Oxygenation of blood

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What determines how efficiently the body is using
oxygen?

• Aerobic capacity VO2max
• More active higher capacity
• Average value 45-60 ml O2/min/kg
• Increases in intensity require higher levels of
  oxygen consumption
• Inherit certain range of maximum aerobic capacity
  (genetics)
• Dependent on activity levels
• Also impacted by muscle fiber types

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Maximum Aerobic Capacity

• Most accurate techniques must be performed in a
  laboratory setting
• Treadmill, bicycle ergometer
• Monitor heart rate and gas exchange at particular
  workload
• Generally utilize heart rate to estimate
  percentage of maximum aerobic capacity
• Indirect method
• Heart rate and aerobic capacity have linear
  relationship

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Types of Training for Cardiorespiratory Endurance

• Continuous
• Mode (type of exercise) - must be aerobic in
  nature
• Frequency (at least 3 times/week)
• Duration (at least 20 minutes)
• Intensity (monitor intensity as of heart rate
  or perceived exertion)
• Training heart rate target heart rate
• Maximum HR 220 - Age
• Karvonen formula (60 HR Max)
• Target HRResting HR(.6 Max HR Resting HR)

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• Interval training
• Intermittent activities involving periods of
  intense work and active recovery
• Must occur at 60-80 of maximal heart rate
• Allows for higher intensity training at short
  intervals over an extended period of time
• Most anaerobic sports require short burst which
  can be mimicked through interval training

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• Fartlek training
• Cross-country running that originated in Sweden
• Speed play
• Similar to interval training in that activity
  occurs over a specific period of time but pace
  and speed are not specified
• Consists of varied terrain which incorporates
  varying degrees of hills
• Dynamic form of training
• Must elevate heart rate to minimal levels to be
  effective
• Popular form of training in off-season