CONTACT INFORMATION

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CONTACT INFORMATION

• 2902 North Leonard Road 64506
• Office Phone [phone]
• Social Science Office 271-4340
• Continuing Education 271-4100
• Office Fax [phone]
• E-Mail IRAN26_at_been-there.com

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academic.mwsc.edu/albright

• Photo exhibit on Tel Bethsaida
• Links to excellent archaeology web
• sites
• Biographical data
• Syllabus and handouts
• Archaeology trip information
• Tel Bethsaida web site

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Max Mallowan and Agatha Christie

• Who are you, sir? to him I said,
• For what is it you look?
• His answer trickled through my head
• Like bloodstains in a book..

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His accents mild were full of wit..

• Five thousand years ago
• Is really, when I think of it,
• The choicest age I know.
• And once you learn to scorn A.D.
• And you have got the knack,
• Then you could come and dig with
• me,
• And never wander back.

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Continued the author

• But I was thinking how to thrust
• Some arsenic into tea,
• And could not all at once adjust
• My mind so far B.C.
• I looked at him and softly sighed,
• His face was pleasant too..
• Come tell me how you live? I cried,
• And what it is you do?

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EARLY ATTEMPTS AT ARCHAEOLOGY

• Antiquarians
• Collectors
• Classifiers
• Looters and Robbers

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Pseudo-archaeology

• Chariots of the Gods (van Daniken)
• King Tuts tomb
• The Pyramids

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ARCHAEOLOGY

• The scientific study of the material
• remains of mans past..
• Scientific study (Techniques, Methods,
  
• Theoretical Frameworks)
• Material remains
• Mans past

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THREE STEPS TO THIS DISCIPLINE

• 1. Excavation
• 2. Recording
• 3. Decipherment, explanation and interpretation

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Why Ancient Man Settled In The Same Location

• Water
• Land
• Defense

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THE FORMS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA

• Artifacts
• Features
• Structures
• Ecofacts

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Classifier Christian Thomsen

• Early 1800s
• Danish museum curator
• Stone Age
• Bronze Age
• Iron Age

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STONE AGES

• Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) 700,000-15,000 B.C.
• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) 15,000-8300 B.C.
• Neolithic (New Stone Age) 8300-4200 B.C.
• Chalcolithic (Copper/Stone Age) 4200-3100 B.C.

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Prehistorical and Historical

• Writing invented by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia
• 3,000 B.C.
• B.C. and A.D.
• B.C.E. and A.C.E.
• B.P. and A.P.

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THE GREAT RIFT

• Louis and Mary Leakey Richard Leakey
• Olduvai Gorge
• Lake Victoria Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya

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James Breasted

• The Fertile Crescent
• Southwest end (Egypt) Nile River Valley
• Southeast end (Mesopotamia) Tigris and Euphrates
  River Valleys
• Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey
• Jordan River Valley of Israel

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TEL MEGIDDO

• 120-180 feet high 16 acres
• 22 strata
• Early Bronze (before 3300 B.C.) to Persian
  (600-350 B.C.)

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THE TOMB OF KING TUT

• Howard Carter
• 1907-1922
• Valley of the Kings
• Lord Carnarvon

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DATING THE PAST

• 1. Historical records (present day to 3,000 B.C.)
• 2. Dendrochronology (back to 8000 BC)
• 3. Radiocarbon dating (A.D. 1500 to 40,000 years
  ago)
• 4. Potassium argon dating (250,000 B.C. to
  origins of early life)

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Two Sources of Information

• Written (Historical or Text-aided
• Archaeology ) stone, clay tablets, wood,
  metal, papyrus, parchment
• Unwritten (Prehistoric Archaeology)
• buildings, sculptures, ceramics, tools,
• weaponry, jewelry, coins, food, bones

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THE VALUE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

• 1. It provides the color for the black-and-
• white sketch of history
• 2. Historical records are by no means complete
• 3. Helps in the translation and
• explanation of languages
• 4. Validates some literature that was thought to
  be inaccurate

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THE FERTILE CRESCENT

• James Breasted
• The Great Rift
• Olduvai Gorge

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ARCHAEOLOGY

• Archaios and logos
• Zoology
• Psychology
• Anthropology
• Sociology

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The Scientific Study of Humanity

• Cultural Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Archaeology
• Linguistics

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HEINRICH SCHLIEMANN

• Homers Iliad and Odyssey
• Troy and Mycenae, 1869
• The Greek Treasure
• Sir Arthur Evans and the Minoans,
• 1899

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CERAMIC INDEX

• Sir Flinders Petrie, late 1800s
• Egyptian Predynastic tombs
• Diospolis Parva
• Based on ceramic attributes
• Egyptian chronology the basis for most
  chronological schemes

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA STAGES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

• 1. Acquisition
• 2. Manufacture
• 3. Use
• 4. Deposition

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GOALS OF ARCHAEOLOGY

• 1. Studying sites and their contents
• 2. Reconstructing past lifeways and history
• 3. Studying cultural process
• 4. Understanding the archaeological record which
  is a part of our contemporary world

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TEL AND HORVAT

• Tel a man-made hill ruin
• Tel Arabic
• Horvat Hebrew

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Debitage at Chaco Canyon

• Flint Flakes
• Evidence of trading
• Lookout point

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DATING THE PAST

• Historical records (present day to 3000 B.C.)
• Dendrochronology (present day to 8000 B.C.)
• Radiocarbon Dating (A.D. 1500 to 40,000 years
  ago)
• Potassium Argon Dating (250,000 years ago to the
  origins of life)

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CIVILIZATION

• A level of cultural attainment marked by
• Presence of writing
• Monumental architecture
• Stratified social system

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ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION

• Ecology
• Population growth
• Technology
• Irrigation
• Growth of trade
• Warfare
• Religion

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NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

• 1st ground stone technology
• 1st domestication of plants and animals
• 1st agricultural projects
• 1st population explosion
• 1st architecture
• 1st weaving from domestication
• 1st pottery

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JERICHO

• Tel 6 acres in area and 70 ft. high
• Oldest continually inhabited city
• Ideal environment
• Evidence of domesticated grains
• Trade network
• Defensive fortifications

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MESOPOTAMIA

• Tigris and Euphrates rivers
• Greek meaning land between the rivers
• 600 miles long 250 miles wide
• Long, intensely hot summers
• Harsh, cold winters
• Rainfall minimal and varied

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MESOPOTAMIAN CONTRIBUTIONS

• Wheel
• Chariot
• Writing
• Metallurgy
• Mathematical functions of mulitiplication and
  division
• Lunar Calender

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MESOPOTAMIAN PERIODS

• Ubaid 5800-3000 B.C.
• Sumerian 3000-2300 B.C.
• Old Babylonian/Akkadian 2334-1600 BC
• Kassite/Hittite 1600-1300 B.C.
• Assyrian 1300-612 B.C.
• Babylonian/Medes 612-330 B.C.

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URUK The Worlds 1st City

• Two innovations writing and metallurgy
• 4500 B.C.
• 617 acres with villages extending as extensive as
  6 miles
• Dominated by a ziggurat (temple mound)

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Sumer The World of the First Cities

• 3500-3200 B.C. lst civilized territory on the
  globe
• 3200-2000 B.C. Sumerian Era
• lst 900 years had no unified government
• City states Uruk, Ur, Lagash
• 2320 B.C. all Sumer conquered by a mighty warrior
  from Akkad (Sargon the Great)

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SARGON

• Ruler of Akkadian Civilization
• Conquered Sumerian Civilization
• Covered Sumer (south) and Akkad (north)
• Ur of the Chaldees excavated by Sir Leonard
  Wooley (Royal cemetery series of kings/queens
  and retinue one had 59 servants buried)

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Sumerian Civilization

• 3100-2334 B.C.
• No metal, timber, semiprecious stones
• Imported copper, gold and other ores
• Widespread use of bronze
• Metal plows increased agricultural yields
• Region-wide trade network
• 1st use of clay tablets for extensive record
  keeping Gilgamesh Epic

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CUNEIFORM

• Mesopotamia
• Wedge-shaped
• Ideogram
• Stone inscriptions and clay tablets
• Mari 20,000 tablets

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Cuneiform Deciphered

• Henry Rawlinson (1810-1895)
• Worked two years copying inscription using
  ladders, ropes and slings
• Behistun Stone
• Persian King Darius battling Gaumata with the
  help of god Ahuramazda
• Old Persian (414), Elamite (263), Akkadian (112)

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Hammurabi

• Ur gave way to Babylon and its Semitic rulers
• Old Babylonian Empire
• 2334-1650 B.C.
• Code of Hammurabi 1792-1750 B.C.
• 282 laws

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HITTITE INTERLUDE

• From Anatolia (eastern Turkey)
• 1600 B.C.
• Capital Hattusas
• Control of 3 continents and seas
• Created light-chariot warfare horses
• Excavated in 1907
• Archive of 20,000 tablets in Indo-European
  language

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Uluburun Ship

• Coast of southern Turkey 1310 B.C.
• 350 copper ingots each weighing 60 lbs.
• Ton of resin in two-handles jars from Syria
• Ingots of blue glass hardwood amber turtle
  shells elephant tusks hippo teeth ostrich
  eggs jars of olives large jars filled with
  Cannaanite and Mycenean pottery

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Assyrian and Babylonian

• 900-539 B.C.
• Assyrian capital Nineveh
• King Assurnasirpals party
• Tiglath Pileser III destroyed Bethsaida in 732
  B.C.
• Last great Assyrian king Assurbanipal died in 630
  B.C.
• Babylonians take over in 612 B.C.

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Sennacherib

• Assyrian
• 705-681 B.C.
• Capital Nineveh
• Invasion of Israel in 702-701 B.C.
• Ten Lost Tribes

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Nebuchadnezzar

• 604-562 B.C.
• City of Babylon
• Walls of glazed brick
• Hanging gardens one of the ancient seven wonders
  of the world
• Invaded Israel in 587-586 B.C.
• State taken over by Cyrus the Persian in 534 B.C.

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

• Several skills used long before excavation begins
  in the field
• Theoretical skills
• Methodological skills
• Technical skills
• Administrative/managerial skills
• Writing and analytical skills

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FORMULATION

• Problem/hypothesis definition
• Background research
• Feasibility studies

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IMPLEMENTATION

• Permits
• Funding
• Logistics

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DATA ACQUISITION

• Reconnaissance
• Survey
• Excavation

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DATA PROCESSING

• Cleaning and conservation
• Cataloging
• Initial classifications

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ANALYSIS

• Analytical classifications
• Temporal frameworks
• Spatial frameworks

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INTERPRETATION

• Application of theories
• Cultural historical and/or
• Cultural processual theory

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PUBLICATION AND RESTORATION

• Final reports
• Research results used as a foundation for new
  research

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Hymn to Aton----Pharaoh Akhenation

• Thou makes the Nile in the Nether world Thou
  bringest it as thou desirest,
• To preserve alive the people of Egypt. For
  Thou hast made them for thyself, Thou lord of
  them all.

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ANCIENT EGYPT

• The Greek writers said the land of Egypt was the
  gift of the Nile River
• Starts in equatorial Africa as the White Nile and
  flows 2100 miles north to join the Blue Nile for
  the last 1900 miles
• Egyptians called their country the Two Lands
  Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt
• Travel either khed (downstream) or khent
  (upstream)

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Different from Mesopotamia

• Egypt stability and serenity
• Mesopotamia harsh environment, sporadic
  flooding, open plain allowed foreign incursions
• Egypt rich, fertile black soil annual flooding
  surrounded by deserts and Red Sea abundant
  mineral resources rich in granite, limestone,
  basalt

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Importance of Egyptian Chronology

• All of the chronological dates in the
  Mediterranean area for ancient civilizations are
  based on Egyptian chronology

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Predynastic Egyptian Cultures 5000-3100 B.C.

• Amratian
• Badarian
• Gerzean

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Egyptian History

• Pharaoh is a biblical term never used by the
  Egyptians themselves
• Greek pharaohs divided into 30 dynasties (3000
  BC to Alexander)
• Ptolemaic Egypt (332-30 BC)
• Roman occupation (30 BC became an imperial
  province of Rome)

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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PERIODS

• Unification of Egypt 3100 B.C
• Archaic Period 3100-2770 B.C.
• Old Kingdom 2770-2200 B.C.
• First Intermediate Period 2200-2050 B.C.
• Middle Kingdom 2050-1786 B.C.
• Second Intermediate 1786-1560 B.C.

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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PERIODS

• New Kingdom 1560-1087 B.C.
• Late Period 1087-332 B.C.
• Ptolemaic Period 332-30 B.C.
• Roman Occupation 30 B.C.

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Unification of Egypt

• 1st Pharaoh-----Narmer-----3100 B.C.
• Unified Upper and Lower Egypt
• Heirankapolis
• 1st heiroglyphics
• Narmers Pallette

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Old Kingdom IIIrd Dynasty

• 2770 B.C.
• Zoser (Djoser)
• Great state power systemabsolutism
• Founder of the Old Kingdom
• Builder of 1st Pyramid
• Step Pyramid
• Saqqarah

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Fourth Dynasty

• Parallels Early Bronze Age III (2650-
• 2350 B.C.)
• Cheops (Khufu)
• Chephren (Khafre)
• Menkaure (Mycerinus)
• Giza Pyramids and Sphinx
• 2613-2494 B.C.

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Pyramid Complex

• Temenos Wall
• Mortuary Temple
• Causeway
• Funerary Temple
• Pyramid
• Family pyramids

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HEIROGLYPHICS

• Egyptian
• Priestly carving
• Pictogram
• Stone inscriptions and papyrus writings
• Jean Francois Champollion (1778- 1867)
• Rosetta Stone
• Heiroglyphic, Demotic, Greek

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The 1st Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom
(2134-1640 BC)

• Despotic, ruthless rulers
• Conspicuous, costly monuments
• Pepi I..last pharaoh of Old Kingdom94 years
• Decline caused by drouth
• Repeated famines for over 300 yrs.
• Political chaos disunity rulers of small
  kingdoms

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Middle Kingdom (2134-1640 BC)

• Restored by Pharaoh Mentuhotep II operating out
  of Thebes
• Middle Kingdom pharaohs (no outstanding names)
• Less despotic
• Concern for the common welfare
• Classic period of Egyptian civilization
• Extensive trade relations extended

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Middle Kingdom

• Trade relations with entire eastern Mediterranean
• Mined copper and gold in Sinai
• Imported cedar from Lebanon
• Inscriptions in Byblos and Ugarit
• Objects from Aegean Islands and Minoan towns on
  Crete
• Increased agricultural production

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Second Intermediate Period1640-1530 B.C.

• Hidau khasut (Hyksos).Princes of desert
  uplands
• Joseph story
• Capital Avaris in the Delta
• Changed Egyptian civilization
• Brought stronger bows, new forms of swords and
  daggers, and horse-drawn chariots (strength of
  New Kingdom)

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New Kingdom (1530-1070 BC)18th-19th-20th
Dynasties

• Pharaoh Ahmose I the Liberator
• Turned Egypt into an efficiently run military
  state
• This era the greatest in Egyptian history
• Pharaohs become imperial rulers, skilled
  generals, and strong military leaders

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New Kingdom

• Main wars with Mitanni and Hittites
• Financed with Nubian gold lands upstream of the
  First Cataract
• Centers primarily on the Late Bronze Period
• This was the 1st true International Period

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Thebes the Estate of Amun

• Amun-Ra the king of the gods
• Karnak and Luxor Temples
• Built mainly during 18th dynasty
• Ramasseum of Ramses II
• Estate of Amun extended across west of the
  Nile Valley of the Kings (62 royal burials)

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The Temples

• Deir el-Bahri (local cult of Hathor mortuary
  temples 11th dynasty Mentuhotep 18th dynasty
  Hatshepsut Tutmosis III temple complex for God
  Amun
• Medinet Habu (Hatshepsut and Tutmosis III Ramses
  III mortuary)

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Akhenaten and Amarna

• Rejects Amun for Aten
• Ruled 1353-1336 BC (17 years)
• Builds new city at El-amarna
• Succeeded by Smenkhare, son of Amenhotep III (3
  years)
• Succeeded by Tutankhamun (1333-1323 BC)

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Tel El Amarna

• Single stratum
• Pharaoh Amenophis IV (Akhenaten)
• 1375-1325 B.C.
• Amarna Tablets
• Political and cultural interactions between Egypt
  and the ancient Near East

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19th Dynasty (1307-1196 BC)

• Dominated by the Rameside pharaohs
• Most powerful pharaoh Ramses II (1290-1224 BC)
• His tomb in Valley of Kings recent find of his
  sons tombs under his
• Ramses III Dies in 1070 BC last powerful
  pharaoh
• Assyria 725 BC

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Archaeology and Language

• Ramses III and Medinet Habu
• PRST
• Cypriot-Minoans
• PLST

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PALESTINE

• Ramses III and Medinet Habu
• PRST Sea Peoples
• Cypriot-Minoan
• PLST

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EARLY BRONZE AGE (3100-2000 BC)

• EB I, II, III, IV
• EBI (3100-2900) Sumeria, Egypt
• Increasingly shorter periods
• Faster transition
• Larger populations
• Increased technology and inventions
• Two main bronze tools axeheads and tanged daggers

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EARLY BRONZE AGE

• Broad Houses
• Totally new pottery styles
• Wide use of sickle blades
• Canaanite culture in Israel protohistorical
• Most large Israeli cities established
• Family burials caves

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Urban Period Large Cities for Four Reasons

• Hills convenient for fortification
• Located on major water sources
• In the center of agricultural areas
• Beside major road junctions
• Public buildings palaces, temples, central
  granaries
• Fortified urban centers for protection and
  agricultural districts

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An Interlude The EBIV/MBI)

• 300 years Palestine sparsely populated by
  pastoralists and village dwellers
• Parallels Egypts 1st Intermediate era
• Revived urbanization at beginning of MBII
  parallels Egypts Middle Kingdom
• Only a few tels show occupation Hazor, Megiddo,
  Bethshan, Jericho

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MIDDLE BRONZE AGE (2000-1500 BC)

• W.F. Albright said MBI was period of the Hebrew
  patriarchs
• MBII and III (1800-1550 BC)
• Large fortified cities many found on virgin soil
  or places not occupied for centuries
• Use of glacis, guard towers, massive wall
  fortification

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Middle Bronze Age

• Total revolution in all aspects of material
  culture
• Settlement pattern
• Urbanism
• Architecture
• Pottery
• Metallurgy
• Burial customs

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Middle Bronze Age

• Numerous new types of metal weapons and tools
• Sinuhe
• Execration texts
• Hyksos scarabs found in Israel
• Invention of potters wheel with resulting finer
  ceramics

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STRUCTURE STYLES

• Early Bronze Broad House
• Iron Age II Four-Room House (1200-586 B.C.)
• Solomonic (965-928 B.C.) Six-chambered Gate
• Herod the Great (37-4 B.C.) Margin Stones

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PSEUDO-ARCHAEOLOGY

• Chariot Of The Gods
• Indiana Jones
• Pyramid Power

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ARCHAEOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

• Theoretical framework
• Techniques
• Methods

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Antiquarians Three Museums

• British Museum
• Louvre Museum
• Berlin Museum

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THE VALUE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

• 1. It provides the general background of past
  cultures
• 2. Historical records are by no means complete
• 3. Helps in the translation and explanation of
  languages
• 4. Validates some literature

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Artifacts Lewis Binfords Functional Approach

• Technofacts
• Sociofacts
• Ideofacts

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Methods of Expressing Dates

• B.C. and A.D.
• B.C.E and A.C. E.
• B.P and A.P.

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JOSEPHUS

• Jewish General
• Turncoat
• Antiquities and Wars of the Jews
• Masada

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SITE FORMATION PROCESSES

• Behavioral processes
• Cultural
• What in our modern societies would leave no
  remains?

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SITE FORMATION PROCESSES

• Transformational processes
• Organic decay
• Lava flow from volcanic eruptions
• Plowing
• Destruction
• Erosion
• Construction
• Later occupants Philistine garbage pits
• Animal activity

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THE SETTING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA

• Matrix
• Provenience
• Association

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT

• Derived from the careful recording of the
• matrix, provenience, and association
• More than just a spot, a position in time and
  space..involves assessing how
• the find got to its position and what
• happened since its deposition

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THE DETERMINANTS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA

• Primary Context
• Secondary Context

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CLASSIFYING ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

• By archaeological content
• By artifact content
• By geographical location
• By artifact content related to site function

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Marcus Aurelius

• TIME IS LIKE A RIVER MADE UP OF THE EVENTS WHICH
  HAPPEN, AND A VIOLENT STREAM FOR AS SOON AS A
  THING HAS BEEN SEEN, IT IS CARRIED AWAY, AND
  ANOTHER COMES IN ITS PLACE, AND THIS WILL BE
  CARRIED AWAY, TOO.

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FIRST QUESTION ALWAYS

• HOW OLD IS IT?

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CHRONOLOGY

• The temporal ordering of data

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CHRONOLOGY

• The measurement of time and the ordering of
  prehistoric cultures in chronological sequence
  has been of the archaeologists major
  preoccupations since the very beginning of
  scientific research

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AGE DETERMINATIONS

• Relative
• Absolute

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RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY

• The law of stratigraphy
• The law of superposition
• The law of association
• The law of typology

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CLASSIFICATION

• A means for ordering data

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OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATION

• Organizing data into manageable units
• Describing types
• Identifying relationships between types
• Studying assemblage variation in the
  archaeological record

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL TYPES

• Descriptive types
• Chronological types
• Functional types
• Stylistic types

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ATTRIBUTE ANALYSIS

• Formal attributes
• Stylistic attributes
• Technological attributes

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Age Determination by Archaeological
Classifications

• Changes in
• Manufacturing methods
• Function
• Style
• Decoration

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Sir Flinders Petrie

• Diospolis Parva
• Stylistic seriation
• Predynastic Egyptian tombs
• Storage Jars

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ATTRIBUTES IN TYPOLOGY

• Formal attributes
• Stylistic attributes
• Technological attributes

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ABSOLUTE/CHRONOMETRIC DATING

• More effort has been devoted to inventing methods
  of chronometric dating in archaeology than to
  almost any other aspect
  of the subject.

121
CALENDARS

• Greece
• Rome
• Egypt
• Carthage
• Mesopotamia
• Maya