PSY 6450 Psychology of Work

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PSY 6450 Psychology of Work
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PSY 6450 Unit 1

• Some facts and a little history of I/O
• Differences between I/O psychology and OBM
• Bucklin et al. (2000)
• Written essential material into SOs
• History of OBM
• Dickinson (2000)
• 20th anniversary issue of JOBM
• Article by Quilitch

schizophrenic
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Four basic areas of I/O psychology (NFE)

• Personnel Selection and Placement
• Main area of emphasis for I/O
• Not emphasized in OBM
• Training and Instructional Design
• Largest area of employment for MAs
• Performance Management
• Focus of this course
• Systems Analysis - Organizational Development
• (not counseling or clinical. EAP programs -
  counseling/clinical/social work degrees)

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Facts about I/O psychology

• SO1 Primary professional organization for I/O
  psychology

Society for Industrial/Organizational
Psychology Web site www.siop.org

• SO2 Percentage of PhD psychologists who are I/O
  psychologists

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SO4 Where do I/O psychologists work?

• 4A Ph.D.s (learn top two for exam)
• Universities 39
• Consulting firms 35
• Industry 20
• Government 6
• 4B MAs (learn top two for exam)
• Industry 67
• Consulting firms 14
• Government 11
• Universities 8

note difference PhD industry vs. universities and
consulting/note difference MAs CLG
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SO5 Salaries - SIOP Survey 2006 (NFE)
PhD median starting same for applied profs
Profs significantly lower than applied PhD
female median income is 15 lower than males -
no change in since 1982!
(about 50 of students are now female, 14 when I
got my I/O degree 1977 WMU figures in Sos fulls
paid 15 less than males)l
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SO7 Licensing (NFE)

• Very different than clinical
• Varies from state to state
• Some require it, most dont (contrary to what
  Muchinsky said)
• Some states preclude it - i.e., MI
• Educational and experiential requirements focus
  on clinical/counseling courses and internships

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SO8 SIOP opposes licensing - why?

• SIOP maintains that I/O psychologists
• Should be able to be licensed
• But should not be required to be licensed
• Main reason why (SO8)
• I/O psychologists do not deal with vulnerable
  populations and are not health care providers,
  licensing is not needed.
• Licensing differs from certification - Board
  Certified Behavior Analyst or BCABA
• Move to license behavior analysts I expect that
  to happen in about 10 years

(click no, licensing originally to protect public
- vulnerable populations, health care areas)
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First area of application in I/O

• SO10A The oldest area of application and the one
  that still dominates today is Personnel Selection
  Placement.
• Main difference between I/O programs and OBM
  programs.
• SO10B Personnel Selection got started by
  selection and placement of military personnel in
  WWI WWII
• Clinical tests, typically intelligence and
  personality tests, and used them to test recruits

(emphasis influences other aspects of training -
statistical methods used to determine
reliability and validity of tests - job
relatedness)
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Personnel Selection, cont. (NFE)

• I/O expanded greatly when Congress passed Title
  VII Civil Rights Act, 1964
• Banned unfair discrimination against minorities
  and females
• I/O has a lock on personnel selection as a
  profession

Other EEO Laws

• Age Discrimination
• Vietnam/Disabled
• Veterans
• Americans with
• Disabilities Act

(quite a bit of overlap between I/O and OBM and
other areas mgt, human resources,
industrial Engineer - selection remains I/O.
dont deal with laws and issues here, personnel
selection)
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SO11 Main journal for I/O psychology

• I/O main journal Journal of Applied Psychology
• Other top journals (NFE)
• Personnel Journal
• Academy of Management Journal
• Academy of Management Review
• Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
  Processes
• Administrative Science Quarterly
• Journal of Management
• Journal of Organizational Behavior
• Organizational Research Methods
• Journal of Vocational Behavior

(very little cross-fertilization OBM/IO, JOBM
missing from top ten journals - recognized
rankings in IO)
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SO12 Greatest episode in formation I/O

• The greatest single episode in the formation of
  I/O according to many
• Hawthorne Studies
• Heretofore restricted to selection
• Expanded to
• Satisfaction
• Group morale and group norms
• Importance of a sympathetic, understanding
  supervisor

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Some Major Differences Between I/O and OBM

• Bucklin et al., 2000

(only highlight some important differences -
embedded those in sos)
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Purpose of study

• To identify similarities and differences with
  respect to topics and research methods used in
  OBM and traditional I/O psychology

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Method

• JAP
• Authors reviewed every article in JAP between
  1987 1997 (N 997)
• Classifications were primarily derived from Nolan
  et al. (1999) who previously analyzed articles in
  JOBM for the same years (N119)
• JOBM
• JAP classification results were compared to JOBM
  data collected by Nolan et al. (1999)

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SO14 No unifying theory in I/O (NFE)

• I/O Psychology
• No unifying theory historically
• No unifying theory today
• 6 main motivational theories Muchinsky
• 6 main leadership theories Muchinsky
• Motivational theories and Leadership theories
  (already 12 different theories)
• Leads to research and articles about who is right

(last edition, 7 theories, deleted all reference
to reinforcement theory, behavior analysis)
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SO14 Unifying theory of OBM (NFE)

• OBM (emerged in the early 1960s)
• Unifying theory of behavior analysis
• Emerged from other areas within
• behavior analysis
• - programmed instruction (Brethower)
• - clinical psychology (Daniels, Gilbert)
• - experimental (Anderson, Brown)
• - general applied (Hopkins)
• - education (Sulzer-Azaroff)
• Behavior analysis is unique - apply the same
  principles across all specializations (not only
  for topics within OBM)

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SO16 Topics in JAP JOBM
16A Rank order top 3 in JAP
JAP
JOBM

• Selection Placement
• Statistical Analysis Procedures
• Performance Appraisal

• Productivity Quality
• Customer Satisfaction
• Training and Development

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SO16B Of top 12 topics, commonalities

• Only three!!
• Productivity Quality
• Training Development
• Health Safety

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Differences (NFE)

• Ranking

(most OBM articles dealth with productivity
quality issues, 5-10 measures more breadth I/O)
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SO17 Primary research strategy

• Percentage of research articles that were
  experimental vs correlational (NFE)
• JOBM JAP
• Experimental 95 40
• Correlational 5 60
• Primary research strategy (for exam)
• JOBM Experimental
• JAP Correlational
• What is the problem with correlational research?

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SO18 Field vs. Laboratory Exp. (NFE)
(NFE, but using this to make a point later,
reversed)
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SO19 Research studies Applied vs.
theoretical
What percentage of research studies in JOBM and
JAP were designed to solve an organizational
problem vs to answer a theoretical question?

• Applied
• Conducted to solve an organizational problem
• Theoretical
• Conducted to examine a theoretical, conceptual
  or bridge question (included some field
  studies)

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Results Applied vs. Theoretical
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SO 20 OBM vs. I/O (NFE)

• The percentage of experimental studies conducted
  in the field was much higher in JOBM
• JOBM 80 JAP 20
• The percentage of applied experimental studies
  was much higher in JOBM
• JOBM 45 JAP 6
• OBM is more applied and the gap between research
  and practice appears to be larger in I/O than in
  OBM

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SO20 Why is I/O less applied? (for exam)

• Multiple theories
• Testing hypotheses in the theory
• Comparing one theory against another - who is
  right?
• Experimental design issues
• Rigorous experimental methodologists who adhere
  only to between group designs, rejecting
  single-subject designs as legitimate designs

(Hard for our students to get I/O faculty
positions feedback from CMU small N research
would not permit publication in I/O journals,
which would not help them increase their status
among I/O programs)
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SO21 Why do BG designs restrict applied
research? (NFE)

• Between group designs
• Usually not feasible in applied settings because
  they require random assignment of participants to
  groups
• In organizations, in-tact groups
• Do lab studies where Ps can be randomly assigned
• Within subject designs
• Do not require random assignment
• I/O psychologists have yet to view small N within
  subject designs as legitimate experimental
  designs

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SO 22 Independent variables in studies

• 22A
• Bucklin et al. identified the top 9 IVs that
  were examined. Of those how many were the same
  for JOBM JAP?
• 22B
• Describe the major differences between the IVs
  that were examined

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Independent Variables
JAP (N308)
JOBM (N60)

• Antecedents/ 71
• Information
• 2. Training 15
• 3. Goals 10
• 4. Feedback 8
• 5. Monetaryconsequences 5
• 6. Non-monetaryconsequences 1
• 7. Praise .3

• Feedback 75
• Training 63
• Monetary 33consequences
• Antecedents/ 32Information
• Non-monetary 28consequences
• Goals 25
• Praise 18
• Punishment 5
• System design 2

(top 7 were the same, but proportion very
different. JAP antecedents/JOBM consq, pack
Combined goals, feedback, consq. not surprising
I am covering the topics I am in this class)
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Dependent Variables (NFE)

• JAP
• Self-report measures were used in 50 of
  experimental studies and 76 of correlational
  studies
• Behaviors in only 5 of studies
• JOBM
• Products of behaviors (accomplishments) were used
  in 78 of experimental studies
• Behaviors in 43

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SO23 JOBM weakness, social validity

• Social validity (NFE)
• JAP researchers assessed social validity to a
  much greater degree than JOBM researchers
• JAP 51 JOBM 27
• Interesting given that a much larger proportion
  of JOBM experimental studies were conducted in
  applied settings (45 vs. 5)
• JOBM researchers appear to be ignoring social
  validity, probably due to our discomfort with
  self-report measures.

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SO23, cont Social validity (NFE)

• Three aspects of social validity
• Goals are the goals of the intervention
  important and socially significant?
• Procedures/interventions do managers and
  employees consider the interventions acceptable
  (i.e., are they satisfied with the interventions)
• Effects/results of study are managers and
  employees satisfied with the results of the study
  - all of the results, even perhaps unintended
  ones?

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SO23, cont. Why is social validity important?
(for exam)

• It tells us whether our consumers are satisfied
  with both the intervention and results and if
  they are, they are more likely to continue PM.
• It could increase the acceptance of PM in
  business and industry
• It could mitigate complaints that our technology
  is manipulative and coercive

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History of OBM in the Private Sector1950s - 1980s

• Dickinson, 2000

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SO24 When did OBM become visible?

• OBM started in the mid to late 1960s

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Table 1 Lifetime Achievement or Outstanding
Contributions Awards (NFE)

• Aubrey Daniels
• Thomas Gilbert
• Edward Feeney
• Beth Sulzer-Azaroff
• Thomas Mawhinney
• Dale Brethower
• William Redmon
• Alyce Dickinson
• Paul Brown
• Geary Rummler
• Chevron Chemical Corp (CLG)

• 12. Terry McSween
• 13. Jon Bailey
• 14. Maria Malott
• 15. D. Chris Anderson
• William Abernathy
• Scott Geller
• John Austin
• Dwight Harshbarger

(red wmu connection, 7 of 19)
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OBM Precursors 1950s

• SO25 Who is responsible for programmed
  instruction?
• Skinner
• The science of learning and the art of teaching,
  1954
• Teaching machines, 1958
• Holland Skinner, Analysis of Behavior, 1961
• SO26 First organized application of behavioral
  principles in business industry
• Programmed instruction (more on this later)

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SO27 OBM precursors, cont. (NFE)

• Applications in other areas in behavior analysis
  began before OBM
• Authors who published the first applied article
  in the field
• Ayllon Michael The psychiatric nurse as a
  behavioral engineer, JEAB, 1959
• Who is the father and thus grandfather of OBM?
  (according to Hopkins)
• Jack Michael
• Family tree Bailey (Wolf) -- Austin, Carr,
  Wilder
• and Iwata, for those of you who work in human
  services
• Bailey retired graduating 100 Ph.D. students

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Michael and Ayllon (2007)
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Jack Michael and friends
The family tree Wilder, Carr, Bailey, Michael
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The 1960s OBM gets started

• Articles books - fewer than 10 during the whole
  decade (NFE)
• SO28 First professional organization
• National Society for Programmed Instruction
  1962, 12 years before ABA
• Now, International Society for Performance
  Improvement (applied vs academic)
• Dale Brethower, Geary Rummler, Don Tosti, Susan
  Meyer Markle, Tom Gilbert
• www.ispi.org (great resource for jobs)

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University of Michigan workshops (NFE)

• U of M workshops, 1961-1969
• Center of Programmed Instruction
• Brethower, Rummler, Gilbert, ( Malott) hooked up
  (BR actually published first applied OBM article
  in Personnel in 1966)
• There, programmed instruction led to
  performance-based instruction, which led to
  behavioral systems analysis
• Brethower, Center for PI
• Rummler, College of Business

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SO29 Brethowers accomplishments

• Three main accomplishments
• Programmed instruction
• Performance-based instruction
• Behavioral systems analysis
• Other interesting things to know
• Published first behavioral systems book in 1972.
  The book was published by a publishing firm
  called Behaviordelia - run by Dr. Dick Malott.
• Was my advisor here at WMU!

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SO30 How did PI lead to PBI then BSA?

• Programmed Instruction
• Very skilled at getting people to learn what they
  taught, but often the training did not transfer
  to the job
• Performance-based instruction
• Did training actually transfer to job?
• Led to performance management - it wasnt the
  training that was the problem, but the management
  system
• Behavioral Systems Analysis (the BIG picture)
• PBI and PM got transfer to the job, but
• Was the performance contributing to the
  mission/goals of the organization?

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PM vs BSA conflict (NFE)

• Sales vs manufacturing classic problem
• Implement a sales incentive program so your
  sales representatives sell a lot of cars, but
  manufacturing cant keep up. That creates a long
  delay for the consumer who then buys a car from
  someone else. Your PM program for sales has
  worked, but to the detriment of the entire
  organization.

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SO32 Gilberts book and date

• Human Competence, 1978
• Introduced the concept of worthy performance
  and focusing on accomplishments vs. behavior -
  very controversial in the field.
• Behavior Engineering Model was one of the first
  comprehensive performance diagnostic tools for
  the field.
• Austins PDC and Binders six boxes based on this
  model Austins PDC, next unit
• PIP potential for improving performance
• Exemplar performance minus average performance
  PIP.
• Many consultants use some variant of this today.

(define accomplishments)
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Tom Gilbert
Tom Gilbert
Rich OBrien
Og Lindsley
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SO33 Aubrey Daniels

• Formed Behavior Systems, Inc., 1971
• With Larry Miller Fran Tarkenton
• First editor of JOBM, 1977
• Practitioner journal, BSI
• Published one of the first books in OBM (written
  for supervisors)
• Performance Management, now in its 4th edition

(cant be in the field, Minnesota Vikings, got
divorced, ADI founded in 1978)
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Aubrey Daniels
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SO34 Where did the name of our field come from?

• JOBM, 1977 (note date, SO36)
• Aubrey Daniels
• Problem with name
• Not distinctive within business - OB vs. OBM
• Business people dont understand it
• Their kids behave (misbehave) their workers
  perform
• Performance Management - still a problem

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SO35A First graduate program to offer OBM and
systems analysis?

• Western Michigan University!!!
• Early 1970s, Applied Behavior Analysis program

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SO35B First faculty member at WMU?

• Dr. Richard Malott was responsible for the
  systems analysis training here at WMU
• Dr. Malott graduated the first students trained
  specifically in systems
• 1978, Brethower joined faculty to behavioralize
  MA program in I/O, due to Dr. Malott
• 1984 Dickinson joined WMU faculty
• My generation, first students trained in OBM

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SO 37

• How do early events in traditional I/O, business
  and management fields relate to the development
  of OBM?
• They were chronological precursors but not causal
  precursors, unlike many have maintained when
  writing about the history of OBM
• Field of OBM emanated from the field of behavior
  analysis

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SO 37, cont.

• Why does Dickinson maintain OBM came from
  behavior analysis and was not much influenced by
  I/O, business, or management fields?
• The individuals who most influenced and pioneered
  the field came from other areas within behavior
  analysis, not from these traditional fields
• Aubrey Daniels - clinical
• Dale Brethower - school psychology
• Beth Sulzer-Azaroff - education
• Bill Hopkins - general behavior analysis
• Tom Gilbert - clinical
• Paul Brown - experimental

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Quilitch (1975)

• A comparison of three staff
• management procedures
• JABA, 8, 59-66

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Why Quilitch? (NFE)

• Traditional I/O psychology focuses on antecedents
  and instructional control
• This study nicely demonstrates that memos and
  in-service workshops do not effectively alter
  staff performance
• The dependent variable is the behavior of the
  clients, not staff
• Represents Gilberts notion of measuring
  accomplishments, not behaviors
• Will changes in staff behavior lead to meaningful
  changes in client behavior?
• The behaviors of the clients are the
  accomplishments of the staff

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Why Quilitch? (NFE)

• Measuring worker accomplishments in human service
  settings is usually more labor intensive than
  measuring accomplishments in a business setting
• Behaviors of the clients vs. a product that can
  be counted (i.e., amount sold, widgets assembled,
  etc.)
• Staff may be more accepting and find it less
  aversive to have client behavior measured
• Parsons et al. (1989), Unit 7 article

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SO38 Purpose of Quilitch (1975)

• Setting
• Residential institution for developmentally
  disabled
• Goal
• Increase the number of active residents on the
  four wards

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SO38 Purpose of Quilitch (1975)

• Purpose
• Compare the effectiveness of
• Memos instructing staff to lead recreational
  activities
• In-service workshop to teach staff how to lead
  such activities
• Assignments to staff to lead recreational
  activities and publicly posted feedback

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SO39A Dependent Variable?

• Daily average number of active residents on each
  ward

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SO39B Why is the DV important and interesting?

• Many PM studies in human service settings measure
  the behavior of the staff but this measure is a
  measure of an accomplishment for the staff
• You might change the behavior of the staff
  member, but if it doesnt affect the clients
  behavior, you have wasted your efforts
• Parsons et al. maintain that if you give staff
  feedback about the clients behavior they will be
  more receptive to it and less resistant than if
  you monitor and give them feedback on their
  behaviors
• Most of our measurement systems in private
  industry do focus on accomplishments
• Control issue?
• Gilbert behavior vs. accomplishment

(the second is a major theme of Denny Reid, and I
find it intriguing and interesting yet to be
verified, but you dont dismiss the clinical
observations of a professional who has this much
experience and is this good).
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SO40 General results?

• Memos instructing staff to lead recreational
  activities were ineffective
• Workshops teaching staff how to lead such
  activities were ineffective
• Staff scheduling and feedback on the number of
  active clients was effective (moderately so)
• Daily average number of active clients increased
  from 7 to 32 (N95)

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SO41 Workshops

• Staff evaluations of the workshops were
  overwhelmingly positive
• Material presented was useful
• Material was easy to apply and understand
• No relationship was found between the staffs
  evaluation of the workshops and their performance
• What are the applied implications?

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THATS ALL FOLKS!

• Questions?
• E1 Wed., 9/16
• Unit 2 schedule different because I will be out
  of town 9/30
• Exam over unit 2 will be 9/30
• L3 Monday, 9/28