Conservation Biology

1
Conservation Biology

• Terri Rogers
• Fall 2003

2
Conservation Biology

• Conservation Biology Biological Diversity
• Threats to Biological Diversity
• Conservation at the Population Species Level
• Conservation at the Community Level
• Conservation Sustainable Development

3
Conservation Biology Biological Diversity

• Chapter 1

4
Conservation Biology Biological Diversity

• Interdisciplinary Approach
• Need for Conservation Biology
• Philosophical Background
• Biological Diversity
• Location of Biological Diversity
• Extinction Economics
• Direct Economic Values
• Indirect Economic Values
• Environmental Ethics

5
Introduction

• Biological communities that took millions of
  years to develop are disappearing
• Vast numbers of species have declined or are
  extinct
• Genetic diversity decreasing
• Earth cycles altered
• Unprecedented threats
• Emergence of new discipline Conservation Biology

6
Interdisciplinary Approach

• Macaw Case Study
• Charismatic bird due to colors and intelligence
• Endangered in South America
• Identify the problem
• Methodology
• Study Basic Biology
• Diet
• Reproduction
• Solution
• Discovered dependence on clay licks
• Protect crucial habitat areas

7
Need for Conservation Biology

• Multidisciplinary science
• Developed in response to biodiversity crisis
• Addresses threats to biological diversity
• Goals
• Investigate and describe biological diversity
• Understand effects of human activities on
  species, communities, and ecosystems
• To develop practical interdisciplinary approaches
  in protecting and restoring biological diversity

8
1.2 A Synthesis of Many Sciences
9
Philosophical Background of Conservation Biology

• Need recognized for centuries
• Religion Philosophical Beliefs Found Worldwide
• Historical Background
• United States
• Henry David Thoreau
• Ralph Waldo Emerson
• Aldo Leopold
• Gaia Hypothesis
• Earth has properties of a superorganism

10
Philosophical Background of Conservation Biology

• Natural Resources
• Gifford Pinchot
• developed idea of natural resources
• manage for the greatest good for greatest number
  for longest time
• Ecosystem Management
• Highest management priority
• health of ecosystems and wild species
• Sustainable Development
• Develop natural resources to meet present needs
  in a way that does not harm biological
  communities and considers future needs for future
  generations

11
Ethical Beliefs of Conservation Biology

• Diversity of species and biological communities
  should be preserved
• Untimely extinction of populations or species
  should be prevented
• Extinction is natural, but not at current rate.
• Ecological complexity should be maintained
• Evolution should continue
• Biological diversity has intrinsic value

12
Monarch

• A Case Study by Adam Heise
• Fall 2000

Danaus plexippus

• At Risk Species
• Canada
• Mexico
• Decline in habitat
• Reserves established
• too small
• subject to logging
• Ophrycystis elektroscirrha
• eats butterfly larvae
• produces spores,
• spreads during mating

No Photographer Available http//www.monarchwatch.
org/biology/sexing.htm
13
Monarch
Danaus plexippus

• Sexing Monarchs
• MALE top
• blotch on lower orange panel
• thin black lines
• FEMALE bottom
• no blotches on lower panel,
• thicker black lines

No Photographer Available http//www.monarchwatch.
org/biology/sexing.htm
14
Reproduction

• Metamorphosis (4 stgs.)
• Egg
• 700 in spring
• Larva ( caterpillar)
• Pupa
• Adult
• Life span 6 - 9 months

No Photographer Available http//www.monarchwatch.
org/biology/cycle.htm
15
Monarch

• Food Source
• Nectar
• Milkweed plants
• Self-Defense
• Poisonous to predictors
• absorbs from milkweed

Tropical Milkweed Asclepias curassavica Photograph
by D. H. Janzen
16
Monarch Migration

• Population
• Canada
• United States
• Mexico
• Species Numbers
• Several Million
• The Journey
• Canada to U.S. to Mexico
• Group migration
• Lay eggs as they go north

17
What is Biological Diversity?

• Genetic diversity
• genetic variation found within a species
• geographically separated populations
• individuals within single populations
• Species diversity
• range of species in a ecosystem
• Community and ecosystem diversity
• the variety of habitat types over a given region

18
1.3 Biological Diversity
19
Species Diversity

• Includes the entire range of species
• Species Definition
• Morphological group of individuals
  morphologically, physiologically, or
  biochemically distinct from others
• DNA now can distinguish this even more
  specifically
• Biological group of individuals that can
  potentially breed among themselves and do not
  breed with other groups
• Single species may have many varieties
• dog breeds
• hybridization complications

20
Box 1 Naming Classifying Species
21
Genetic Diversity

• Affected by reproductive behavior.
• Population
• group that interbreeds, producing offspring
• genetically different from one another
• alleles
• variations or forms of a gene
• arise through
• mutations
• recombination
• gene pool
• total array of genes and alleles
• particular combination
• genotype
• phenotype
• morphological, physiological, biochemical
  characteristics

22
Community Ecosystem Diversity

• Biological community
• Species and interactions within community
• Ecosystem
• Biological communtiy environment
• Niche
• Set of resources needed within biological
  community
• Includes stage of succession
• Limiting Resource
• component that restricts population size

23
Community Ecosystem Diversity

• Succession
• gradual process of change
• species composition
• community structure
• physical characteristics
• Carrying Capacity
• number of individuals the resources of an
  environment can support
• number of people on Earth
• Mutualistic Relationships
• Two species benefit one another

24
Community Ecosystem Diversity

• Trophic Levels
• Classified by method of acquiring energy
• Importance of biomass
• Primary Producers
• Photosynthetic species
• Primary Consumers
• Herbivores
• Secondary Consumers
• Carnivores, Predators, Parasites
• Detritivores (Decomposers)
• Food Chains/Webs

25
Community Ecosystem Diversity

• Keystone Species
• Important to survival of large numbers of species
• Affect the entire organization of the community
• Priority of conservation efforts
• loss of keystone species, lose many others as
  well
• Include top predators (wolves) others (beavers
  make wetland habitat), pollinators
• reason for deer explosion
• extinction cascade
• elimination of single keystone species can create
  a series of linked extinctions

26
Community Ecosystem Diversity

• Keystone Resource
• crucial to many species
• environmentally induced
• clay lick for macaws
• salt licks
• deep pools
• elevational gradients
• moisture gradients

27
The Wood Turtle
Clemmys insculpta

• ENDANGERED
• Physical Description
• 5.5 8 in length
• Orange, yellow, and brown
• Hatchling 1 1/ 8 1 5/ 8

http//hometown.aol.com/Nofxpunk99/wood.html No
Photographer Available
28
The Wood Turtle

• Habitat
• Mud , water, and land
• Most Terrestrial Turtle
• Good Climbers

http//www.ash.udel.edu/ash/exhibit/reptiles/Wood.
html No Photographer Available
29
The Wood Turtle

• Food
• Omnivores
• Earthworm Stomping

http//www.goldenstateberries.com/ No
Photographer Available
30
The Wood Turtle

• The Birds and The Bees
• Mature late
• Mating Sign, it takes two to tango!

http//www.fifthdaycreations.com/articles/robin.as
p No Photographer Available
http//www.kohala.net/bees/JPEGS/beew-1.html
Photograph By P-O Gustafsson
31
Measuring Biological Diversity

• Alpha Diversity or Species Richness
• Number of species in a community
• Beta Diversity
• degree to which species composition changes along
  an environmental or geographical gradient
• high if species composition changes
• wet to mesic to dry prairie
• Gamma Diversity
• Larger geographical scale
• Number of species in a large region or continent

32
The Polar Bear
Ursus maritimus

• Polar Bear Status
• Threatened
• 22-27 Thousand Bears
• Native Range Lands
• United States (Akaska)
• Canada
• Russia
• Denmark (Greenland)
• Norway

No Photographer Available http//www.polarbearsali
ve.org/pb13.htm
33
The Polar Bear

• Reproduction
• Mating from April-May
• Interesting Fact
• Implantation
• Birth Numbers
• Average 2 per female
• 6 out of 10 die in 1st year
• Killed by mother
• Adoption
• Females accept others

No Photographer Available http//www.polarbearsali
ve.org/pb13.htm
34
The Polar Bear

• Home Range
• Distinct territory
• Overlapping
• Communication
• Warnings
• Begging
• Play
• Life Span
• Wild, 15-18 Years
• Captivity, Record 41 years

No Photographer Available http//www.polarbearsali
ve.org/pb13.htm
35
The Polar Bear

• Adaptations
• Layer of Blubber 4.5
• Two layers of fur
• White
• Hunting
• Seals
• Eat only skin blubber
• Polar Bear Size
• Males, 775-1500 lbs
• Females, 330-500 lbs

No Photographer Available http//www.polarbearsali
ve.org/pb13.htm
36
1.10 Biodiversity indices
37
The Distribution of Biological Diversity

• Where is Biological Diversity Found?
• tropics
• resulted in evolutionary radiation
• species diversity increases towards tropics
• greatest in tropical forests
• 7 worlds area, gt50 worlds species
• coral reefs
• large tropical lakes
• tropical dry habitats forests, shrublands,
  grasslands, deserts
• deep sea

38
Box 1.2 Origin of New Species
39
Species Worldwide

• 1.5 million species described
• twice that are not described
• primarily insects, arthropods in tropics
• poorly investigated categories
• inconspicious
• soil microbes, bacteria
• undesirable habitats to investigate
• habitats not yet investigated

40
Extinction Economics Losing Something of
Value

• Patterns of extinction
• Mass extinction 5 times in earth history
• large mammals and birds
• dinosaurs
• 35 animal families
• 50 animal families
• 30 animal families
• 50 animal families
• Concern
• Rate of extinction

41
1.14
42
Ecological Economics

• Understand causes of destruction
• put value on transaction
• outside benefits and costs externalities
• market failure misallocation of resources
• help understanding of all costs of transactions
• Integrates economics, environmental science, and
  public policy and includes valuations of
  biological diversity in economic analyses
• environmental impact assessments
• externalities
• cost-benefit analysis

43
Common Property Resources

• Owned by society at large
• often not assigned monetary value
• Tragedy of the Commons
• Garrett Hardin (1968)
• Need green accounting
• National Resource Accounting

44
Direct Economic Values

• Consumptive use value
• Resources consumed locally
• Do not appear in national/international
  marketplace
• 80 world uses traditional medicines from
  plants/animals
• Protein crucial requirement
• Productive use value
• Direct value assigned to products sold in
  commercial markets at national/international
  level
• Timber one of most significant products
• ability to provide founder stock for
  industry/agriculture
• biocontrol agents

45
Indirect Economic ValuesNonconsumptive Use Value

• Ecosystem productivity
• photosynthetic capacity
• Protection of water and soil resources
• Buffering ecosystems against extremes
• Protection against flooding
• Water supplies
• Regulation of climate
• Moderate climate conditions
• Carbon sink
• Waste disposal and nutrient retention

46
Indirect Economic ValuesNonconsumptive Use Value

• Species relationships
• interrelationships
• Recreation and ecotourism
• Educational and scientific value
• Environmental monitors
• Sensitive species provide early warning system
• Types of species present indicates overall health
  of area

47
Indirect Economic Values

• Option Value
• Potential to provide an economic benefit
• Needs change
• Existence Value
• Charismatic megafauna
• pandas
• wolves
• biological communities
• tropical rainforest
• old-growth forests
• prairies

48
A Case Study by Sarah Droste Fall 2000African
Elephant Loxodonta africana

• Largest land animal.
• Males up to 13,200lbs.
• Females up to 7,700lbs.
• Gray to brown with huge ears, long trunk, two
  ivory tusks.
• Grasslands, marshes, forests, desert, mountains.
• Herbivores.
• Endangered
• slaughter
• habitat loss.

Photo by Eric Van Poppel WWW.geobop.com Encyclop
edia Encarta www.nature-wildlife.com
49
Environmental Ethics

• Each species has a right to exist.
• All species are interdependent.
• People have a responsibility to act as stewards
  of the Earth
• People have a responsibility for future
  generations
• Respect for human life and concern for human
  interests are compatible with a respect for
  biological diversity
• Nature has spiritual and aesthetic value that
  transcends its economic value
• Biological diversity is needed to determine the
  origin of life

50
Philosophical Approaches

• Deep ecology
• species have value in and of themselves
• humans have no right to reduce this richness

51
Conservation Biology

• Conservation at the Population
• and Species Levels

52
Threats to Biological Diversity

• Chapter 2

53
Maintaining Healthy Environment

• Preserving all components in good condition
• ecosystems
• species
• genetic variation

54
Threats to Biological Diversity

• Rates of Extinction
• Human-caused Extinctions
• Island Biogeography Modern Extinction Rates
• Causes of Extinction
• Vulnerability to Extinction

55
1Describe past rates of extinction
56
Rates of Extinction

• Globally Extinct
• none alive anywhere in the world
• Extinct in the Wild
• alive only in captivity
• Locally Extinct
• no longer found in a former habitat
• Ecologically Extinct
• reduced numbers cease to impact communtiy
• Living Dead
• nonreproductive individuals still living- none
  others
• Extinct when not seen in 50 years (extant)

57
Human Caused Extinction

• Species numbers decreased as population increased
• 40 total net primary productivity utilized by
  humans
• 25 primary productivity of Earth
• 74-86 megafauna mammals gt100 pounds extinct

58
Relation to Past Extinction Rates

• Accelerating
• Tremendously faster than past rates
• Extinctions since 1600
• 2.1 mammals
• 1.3 birds
• Most in last 150 years

59
Human Dominant Ecosystem

• Land Surface
• land use
• demand for resources
• transformed 50 land
• Nitrogen Cycle
• nitrogen fertilizers and burning fossil fuels
  adds nitrogen
• Atmospheric Carbon Cycle
• fossil fuels doubled carbon dioxide levels

60
Rates of Extinction

• Since 1600 species extinct
• 85 mammals
• 113 birds
• 21 reptiles
• 2 amphibians
• 23 fish
• 98 invertebrates
• 384 flowering plants

61
Extinction Reates Water Land

• Islands have highest species extinction rates
• Birds, mammals, reptiles
• 80 endemic plants
• Endemiclocation naturally occurring
• Hawaii
• Half extinct species are from islands
• 99 extinctions attributable to human activity

62
3 Define endemic

• Location a species occurs naturally
• Whether large or small

63
Island Biogeography Model

• Species-area relationship
• Larger areas have more species
• Greater variety of community types
• Greater geographical isolation
• Greater number of populations per species
• Habitat islands
• reserves in sea of altered landscapes
• Habitat loss species loss
• Loss of 50 of island 10 species lost
• Loss of 90 50 species lost
• Loss of 99 - 75 species lost

64
Human Induced Causes of Extinction

• Habitat destruction
• Habitat fragmentation
• Habitat degradation
• pollution, etc.
• Global climate change
• Overexploitation
• Exotic species
• Increased spread of disease

65
Leafy SpurgeEuphorbia esula

• Introduced 19th Century
• Creates Monocultures
• Displaces natives
• Losses gt120 million

http//www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/weedf
eeders/spurgia.html Photographer Unknown
66
Leafy SpurgeInfested Rangeland

• Difficult to control
• Herbicides ineffective
• Occur in remote areas
• Biological control
• 10 Eurasian insects

http//www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/weedf
eeders/spurgia.html Photographer Unknown
67
Gall MidgeSpurgia esulae

• Eurasian Insect
• Introduced 1985
• Released in 19 states
• Feeds on Euphorbia species only
• Will not kill plant
• Reduces flowering and seed production

http//www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/weedf
eeders/spurgia.html Photographer Unknown
68
Population

• Impact of Population
• 1 billion 1850
• 2 billion 1930
• 6 billion 1998
• Decreased mortality
• Longer life spans
• Medical discovery
• Food supply

69
Population

• Industrial capitalism
• Materialistic modern societies
• Accelerated demand for natural resources
• Inefficient and unequal use of resources
• Agriculture
• Urbanization

70
Unequal Use

• US citizen use compared to India use
• 43 times more peterolum
• 34 times more aluminum
• 386 times more paper

71
Causes of Extinction

• Rise of Industrial Capitalism
• Materialistic Society
• Inefficient Unequal Use of Resources
• 20 people use 80 resources

72
Habitat Destruction

• Habitat loss major threat
• includes degredation
• Threatened rain forests
• Contain 7 Earths land surface
• Contain 50 Earths species
• Prime Examples
• Madagascar
• Atlantic Coast of Brazil
• Coastal Ecuador

73

• Other Threatened Habitats
• Tropical dry forests
• human density 5 times greater
• Wetlands and aquatic habitats
• critical habitats
• flood control
• drinking water
• power production
• 1990 no net loss
• 1980 swampbuster

74

• Other Threatened Habitats
• Mangroves
• breeding grounds
• nursery habitat
• Grasslands (Prairies)
• easy to convert to ag or urban
• Coral Reefs
• contain 1/3 ocean fish species

75
Snow GooseChen caerulescens

• Nest in large colonies
• Population tripled since 1970
• Marsh is barren salt and algae flats
• Habitat damage could result in decline or crash
  of snow goose population
• Declines in other species because of habitat loss

Photographer unknown http//www.tpwd.state.tx.us/n
ature/research/snogeese/snogeese.htm
76
Snow Goose Habitat DestructionHudson Bay Project

• Sub artic salt marsh
• Good condition
• Grazing is occurring
• Positive feedback
• Fertilization
• Plant growth
• Flowering plants

http//research.amnh.org/rfr/hbp/kenshow/ken04.ht
ml Photographer Unknown
77
Snow Goose Habitat DestructionHudson Bay Project

• Annual grubbing
• Depressions form
• Produces goose ponds
• Size increases yearly

http//research.amnh.org/rfr/hbp/degradation/ben0
3.html Photographer Unknown
78
Snow Goose Habitat DestructionHudson Bay Project

• Creates wider streams
• Continued spring grubbing
• Moisture loss
• Increased soil salinity
• No new growth
• Habitat Loss

http//research.amnh.org/rfr/hbp/degradation/ben1
7.html Photographer Unknown
79

• Desertification
• Degredation into artificial deserts
• by human activities
• Process
• Repeated cultivation or overgrazing
• leads to soil erosion and
• loss of soils water holding capacity
• Result
• loss of native species
• loss of soil cover

80
Habitat Fragmentation

• Habitat is divided or reduced in area
• roads and railroads
• towns
• fields
• Island model of biogeography
• Important differences from islands
• Edge effects
• habitat adjacent to human activities
• center of each habitat closer to an edge
• Example 2.15 page 88
• reduces habitat by 50

81
Habitat Fragmentation

• Threatens persistence of species
• Dispersal
• Colonization
• migration
• Many species cannot recolonize fragments
• Species become extinct within fragments
• Reduces foraging ability of native animals
• Precipitate population decline and extinction by
  developing subpopulations
• Genetic drift, inbreeding, depression, etc.

82

• Edge Effects
• Microenvironment
• Greater fluctuations in light, temperature,
  humidity, and wind
• Up to 250 metes
• Shade tolerant species
• late-successional species
• Humidity sensitive species
• Increased wind
• Lower humidity
• Higher temperatures

83

• Edge Effects
• Make fires more likely in forests
• Increase vulnerability to invasion by exotic
  species
• Combination responsible for decline of many
  migratory songbird species
• Brings wild populations into contact with
  domesticated species
• increases potential for spread of diseases

84
Habitat Degradation Pollution

• Biological communities can be damage and species
  become extinct by external factors
• Degradation of air, water, and soil
• can be caused by frequent uncontrolled ground
  fires
• could eliminate insect community
• fishing trawlers dragging ocean floor
• most subtle is pollution
• Pesticide pollution
• Silent Spring, Rachel Carson, 1962
• Biomagnifications (DDT)
• Concentration as you go up the food chain

85
Habitat Degradation Pollution

• Water Pollution
• Cultural eutrophication
• Caused by nutrient loads fertilizer, sewage
• Algal blooms thicken and die
• Decompose and absorb all oxygen in water
• Sedimentation
• Air pollution
• Acid rain
• Ozone production and nitrogen deposition
• Toxic metals

86
Habitat Degradation Pollution

• Global Climate Change
• Greenhouse gases
• Carbon dioxide, methane, etc.
• Greenhouse effect
• Global warming
• Causes
• burning fossil fuels

87

• Evidence for Global Warming
• Increased incidence of heat waves
• Increased evidence of droughts and fires
• Melting of glaciers and polar ice
• Rising sea levels
• Spread of disease to higher elevations
• Earlier spring arrival
• Shifts in species ranges
• Population declines of various species

88
Overexploitation

• Hunting and Harvesting
• Increased efficiency of harvest methods
• mechanization
• Increased harvest amounts
• Exceeding sustainable harvest limits
• Maximum sustainable yield

89
Major groups targeted by trade

• Primates
• Birds
• Reptiles
• Ornamental fish
• Reef corals
• Orchids
• Cacti

90
Introduction of Exotic Species

• Exotic species
• species occurring outside of natural range
• due to human activity
• Geographic barriers once effective
• Human transport bridged that barrier
• Species introductions by
• European colonization
• Horticulture and agriculture
• Accidental transport
• Better competitors no natural predators

91
Introductions of Exotic Species

• Exotic species on Islands
• Santa Catalina
• Goats and mammals grazed 48 native plants to
  extinction
• Pacific Islands
• Brown tree snack eats eggs, nestlings, and adult
  birds

92
Introductions of Exotic Species

• Exotic species in aquatic habitats
• Some purposeful for fisheries
• Sport fishing
• Most unintentional
• Canal building
• Ballast water
• Zebra mussel
• Purple loosestrife

93
Ring Pink MusselObovaria retusa

• Endangered
• Tennessee, Green, and Cumberland Rivers only
• Loss of habitat Dams
• 5 Populations Isolated
• Old Age Poor Reproduction

No Photographer
http//www.fws.gov/r3poa/eco_serv/endangrd/clams/r
ingp_fc.html
94
Lutra canadensis Northern River Otter

• 35-52 long
• 11-30 lbs.
• Wooded aquatic areas
• Webbed feet
• Range from Alaska to northern Calif. and from
  Newfoundland to Florida.
• Extirpated in most of Midwest
• Feeds on fish, frogs, and aquatic invertebrates
• Small ears and eyes
• Dark brown with paler belly
• Elongated body and flattened head

Photographer- Gay Bumgarner www.enature.com
95
Purple loosestrifeLythrum salicaria

• Grows in dense patches
• Flowers from June-Sept.
• Habitat-Marshes, wet meadows, ditches
• Range-Newfoundland/ WA /MN
• Aggressive species
• Outcompetes natives

• Credit to eNature.com for information
• Credit to J.G. Straugh, Jr. for picture.

96
IOWA EURASION WATER MILFOIL

• Invasive
• Travels from lake to lake on boats
• Dense growth/ negative effects on fisheries
• Displaces natives
• Reduces diversity

Article by Gary Phillips, from Iowa
conservationist
97
Zebra MusselDreissena polymorpha

• Invasive Species
• Small clam shell
• Reproduction
• Produces 30,000 eggs
• Introduced 1988
• Destroy Aquatic Habitat
• Better Competitors

Photographer Unknown www.state.ia.us
A case study by Nicole McLees, Fall 2000
98

• Complete These Before Entering New Water
• Drain all water from boat, motor, and trailer
• Wash everything using hot water (140 F)
• Dry boats and trailers in the sun gt4 days before
  use in uninfected water.

99
www.state.ia.us Photographer Unknown
100
Elimination of Native Species

• Freshwater Mussel Species
• Fish Eliminated
• Walleye
• Sauger
• White Bass
• Small-mouth Bass
• Control
• Expensive
• Large Diving Ducks forage areas
• Mallard Ducks shallow waters
• Disruption reproductive cycle

Yellow Sandshell Lampsilis
teres www.inhs.uiuc.edu Photographer Unknown
101
Recreational

• Boat docks and hauls
• Plug water intake ports
• Dead Zebra Mussels
• Wash up on the beach
• Filtering Action
• Clearer water
• Sunlight
• More Vegetation
• Walleye Replaced
• Not reproducing

Photographer Dave Fuller www. nas.er.usgs.gov/fish
es
102
How does it affect Iowa?

• 1998 Barge from Lake Erie
• Colonies
• Lock Dam 1
• Lock Dam 3
• Freshwater mussel beds
• Commercial Impact
• Power Plants
• Water Treatment
• 1 million on control and research
• Commercial Fisherman, Clammers

www.dot.state.ia.us Photographer Unknown
103
Pros and Cons

• Con
• Killing all the native mussels.
• Water fowl birds are eating
• Mussel biofouling
• Filtering as a con
• Pro
• They are remarkable water filters.

Photographer Unknown www.ddgi.es/espais/ianecver.h
tm
104

• Exotic Species Have the Edge
• Most serious threat to National Park System
• Absence of natural predators, pests, diseases in
  new habitat
• No effective checks on their numbers
• Better to adapting to human impacts
• Most serious threat to national parks
• Numbers increase at expense of native species
• Better competitors
• Well established populations may be impossible to
  remove from communities
• May hybridize with close relatives, eliminating
  genotypes/species
• Iowa Ecotype Project pro

105
Big Mouth Buffalo Carp
Ictiobus cyprinellus

• Range from 1-39 pounds
• Voluntary introduced 1918
• Populations Fair
• Competes with native fishes
• Food
• Plankton, algae, and crustaceans

http//www.tpwd.state.tx.us/fish/infish/species/bm
b/bmb.htm No Photographer Available
By Adam Heise
106
Wild ParsnipPastinaca sativa

• Aggressive plant
• Phyto-photo-dermatitis
• Red skin 24hrs.
• Blisters 48hrs.
• Scars skin
• Protective clothing

Http//www.dnr.state.wi.us/otg/caer/ce/eek/earth/p
arsnip.htm
107
Increased Spread of Disease

• Micro parasites
• Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa
• Macro parasites
• Helminth worms, parasitic arthropods
• Epidemiology
• Dense populations promote high transmission rates
• Indirect habitat destruction effects can increase
  disease susceptibility
• Species contact other species previous never close

108
Vulnerability to Extinction

• Species with narrow geographical ranges
• Species with only one or few populations
• Species in which population size is small
• Species in which population size is declining
• Species with low population densities
• Species that need large home range
• Species with large body size

109
Vulnerability to Extinction

• Species that are not effective dispersers
• Seasonal migrants
• Species with little genetic variability
• Species with specialized niche requirements
• Species characteristically in stable environments
• Species forming permanent/temporary aggregations
• Species harvested by people

110
Africanized Killer BeeApis mellifera scutellata.

• Africa to S. America 1956
• U.S. in 1990
• Range extends 200 m./year
• Hybridization with natives
• Land migration to US in 1990
• Less selective nesting
• Colonizes/attacks in swarms
• Remains agitated for 24 hours
• Threats perceived ¼ m. away
• 175 Mexican fatalities

111
Lab Species Area
112
5Explain species area relationship
113
Causes of ExtinctionHuman Induced

• Habitat destruction
• Habitat fragmentation
• Habitat degradation
• Overexploitation
• Exotic Species
• Increased Spread of Disease

114
Causes of Extinction

• Population Impact
• 1 billion 1850
• 2 billion 1930
• 5.9 billion 1995
• 6.1 billion 2000
• Use of natural resources
• Agriculture and urbanization

115
4Explain island biogeography model
116
Conservation at the Population Species Levels

• Chapter 3

117
Main Ideas

• Conserving Species by Conserving Populations
• Problems of Small Populations
• Natural History Ecology
• Establishment of New Populations
• Ex Situ Conservation Strategies
• Legal Protection of Species

118
Conserving Species, Conserving Populations

• Preserve as many species as possible
• Preserve greatest possible area of habitat
• Minimum Viable Population
• MVP
• smallest isolated population with 99 chance of
  remaining extant for 1000 years
• take into account catastrophes
• genetic, natural, demographic
• Minimum Dynamic Area
• MDA
• amount of habitat necessary to maintain the MVP

119
Problems of Small Populations

• Subject to rapid decline and local extinction
• genetic problems
• demographic fluctuations
• environmental fluctuations in
• predation
• competition
• incidence of disease
• food supply
• natural catastropheres
• fires, floods, droughts

120
Problems of Small Populations

• Loss of Genetic Variability
• Genetic Drift
• Inbreeding Depression
• Outbreeding Depression
• Loss of Evolutionary Flexibility

121
Loss of Genetic Variability

• Allows populations to adapt
• Genetic Drift
• alleles vary in frequency
• small populations may have frequency changes
  within generations
• alleles with low frequency have probability of
  being lost
• Equation
• H 1 - 1/2N2
• population of 50
• 99 heterozygosity after one generation
• 90 after 10
• population of 10
• 90 after 1 generation, 60 after 10 generations

122
Maintaining Genetic Diversity
123
Inbreeding Depression

• Small population size can result into close
  relatives mating
• Results
• fewer offspring
• weak or sterile offspring
• allows expression of harmful alleles

124
Outbreeding Depression

• Outbreeding
• mating between separate populations
• occurs when individuals cannot find mates within
  population
• lack of compatibility causes problems
• weak or sterile offspring
• result may be not having precise combination of
  genes which allowed them to survive under
  particular conditions and extremes
• may blur species boundaries

125
Loss of Evolutionary Flexibility

• Uniquely suited for environmental conditions
• present or future
• Result of rare alleles or precise combinations of
  alleles
• Loss of flexibility results
• limit ability of population to respond to
  long-term chances
• pollution
• disease
• climate change

126
Effective Population Size

• Depends on species
• Franklin proposed 50
• would lose only 1 variability per generation
• based on work with domestic animals only
• 500 would have mutation balancing variability
  lost
• 50/500 rule
• isolated populations at least 50, preferrably 500
  for variability
• Effective population size
• smaller than actual population size
• not all individuals can produce offspring
• age, poor health, sterility
• malnutrition, small body size, lack of mate
  (society structure)

127
Problems of Small Populations

• Effective Population Size
• Unequal Sex Ratio
• Variation in Reproductive Output
• Population Fluctuations
• Bottlenecks
• Founder Effects

128
Unequal Sex Ratio

• Unequal numbers of males/females
• random chance
• monogamy
• social systems
• Equation
• Ne 4NmNf
• Nm Nf

129
Variation in Reproductive Output

• Number of offspring varies considerably
• few
• thousands
• plants especially characterize this
• Results in few individuals disproportionately
  represented in gene pool of next generation

130
CONSERVATION OF AMERICAN CRANES

• A Case Study by Tyler E. Hundley

131
Grus americanaWhooping Crane

• Small, unstable populations
• 155 individuals
• Aquatic feeders
• Population increase very slow

• A Case Study by Tyler E. Hundley

132
Grus canadiensisSandhill Crane

• Well established populations
• 500,000
• Food vegetables
• Responded well to conservation
• Where controlled hunting
• Protected areas

133
Comparison

• Small differences in biology and behavior
• Whooping crane population troubled
• Sandhill crane population hearty
• Both species lay two eggs
• Sandhills raise offspring successfully
• Whooping only 15 success
• Chicks kill siblings

134
Human disturbance

• Sandhill cranes nest in remote areas
• Whooping cranes nest in agricultural sites
• Loss of preferred wetlands
• Bird watchers and tourists

135
Bottlenecks Founder Effects

• Bottleneck
• When a population is greatly reduced in size
• Rare alleles will be lost
• If no individual survives with those alleles
• Must reproduce to pass alleles on
• Founder Effect
• When a few individuals leave a large population
• Establish a new population
• New population has less genetic variability than
  original, larger
• Lower probability of persisting

136
Demographic Variation

• Variation in age demographics
• individuals too old to reproduce
• no individuals of reproductive age in population
• absence of offspring over several years
• Demographic stochasticy
• occurs once a population becomes too small
• population has higher probability of going
  extinct
• especially greater in some species with
• lower birth rates, reproduction late in life
  cycle
• Allele Effect
• animals unable to find mates (widely dispersed
  populations)

137
Seed Dispersal Hartman Prairie Restoration
138
Environmental Variation Catastrophes

• Environmental Stochasticity
• Random variation in biological/physical
  environment
• increased/decreased rainfall impacts plant growth
  (food supply)
• Natural Catastrophes
• droughts
• storms
• foods
• earthquakes
• volcanic eruptions
• fires
• cyclical die-offs in surrounding community

139

• Extinction Vortices
• More genetic drift, less ability to adapt
• More inbreeding depression
• Population more subdivided by fragmentation
• More demographic variation
• Lower effective population size
• environmental variation, catastrophes, climate
  change
• habitat destruction, degradation, fragmentation
• overharvesting, exotic species
• Extinction

140
Study Guide

• 7. Consequences of low genetic variability
• Inbreeding depression
• When individuals mate with close relatives such
  as parents, siblings, and cousins. This results
  in fewer offspring, or offspring that are weak or
  sterile. It allows the expression of harmful
  alleles. It allows therefore, harmful recessive
  alleles to become expressed in the homozygous
  form, with resulting harmful effects on the
  offspring.

141
Study Guide

• 7. Consequences of low genetic variability
• Loss of evolutionary flexibility
• Loss of genetic variability may limit the
  ability of a population to respond to long-term
  changes in the environment. Rare alleles and
  unusual combinations of alleles that confer no
  immediate advantages may be uniquely suited for a
  future set of environmental conditions. When
  rare alleles are lost in small populations and
  heterozygosity declines, the population has few
  genetic options available.

142
Problems of Small Populations

• Loss of Genetic Variability
• change F 1 / Z Ne
• Unequal Sex Ratio
• Ne - 4NmNf divided by Nm Nf
• Variation in Reproductive Output
• Population Fluctuations Bottlenecks

143
Study Guide

• 1. List problems of small populations.

144
Study Guide

• 2. Minimum viable population size.
• The smallest number of individuals necessary to
  prevent the population from going extinct.

145
Effective Population Size

• How many individuals are needed to maintain
  genetic variability in a population?
• Smaller than actual population size
• Unequal sex ratio
• Variation in reproductive output
• Population fluctuations
• Bottlenecks/ founder effects

146
Study Guide

• 4. List the factors to consider in effective
  population size.and explain EACH.

147
Study Guide

• 5. Support the correlation of population size
  with genetic variability.
• This is found by measuring the loss in genetic
  variability over time in repeatedly censused
  populations.

148

• As a population becomes smaller
• It tends to lose genetic variability by chance,
• A process called genetic drift.
• Leading to inbreeding depression and a lack of
  evolutional flexibility.

149
Study Guide

• 6. What is the significance of a genetic
  bottleneck?
• A population may occasionally be severely
  reduced in size due to some environmental or
  demographic event that kills all but a few
  individuals.

150

• When a population is greatly reduced in size,
  rare alleles in the population will be lost if no
  individuals possessing those alleles survive.
• With few alleles present and a decline in
  heterozygosity, the overall fitness of the
  individuals in a population declines.

151
Study Guide

• 6b. What is the significance of the founder
  effect?
• The founder effect occurs when a few individuals
  leave a large population to establish a new
  population.

152
Study Guide

• 6. Explain the Ngorongoro Crater lion
  population.
• The lions of Ngorongo Crater in Tanzania are an
  example of a well studied genetic bottleneck.
  The lion population consisted of 60-75
  individuals until an outbreak of biting flies
  reduced the population to 9 females and 1 male in
  1962.
• Two years later, an additional 7 males immigrated
  to the crater. As a result, the small number of
  founders, the isolation of the population, and
  the variation in reproductive success among
  individuals has created a genetic bottleneck.

153

• The genetic bottleneck exists even though the
  population has increased to 125 animals. In
  comparision with the large serengeti lion
  population nearby, the Crater lions show
• reduced genetic variability
• high levels of sperm abnormalities
• and reduced reproductive rates.

154
Problems of Small Populations

• Demographic variation
• demographic stochasticity
• birth/death/age ratio
• Allee effect p. 117

155
Study Guide

• 7. Define demographic stochasticity and give an
  example.
• In an adeal stable environment, populations
  increase until they reach the carrying capacity.
  For whatever reason, population number drop
  because of habitat loss or degradation, exotic
  species, etc once a population drops below 50
  individuals, demographic variation begins to
  become important and the population has a higher
  probability of going extinct.

156

• Random demographic variation is also known as
  demogrphic stoasticity, and becomes greater as
  population size gets smaller, resulting in a
  greater probability of extintion due to chance
  also. The chance of extinct is also greater in
  species that have low birth rates, such as
  elephants. As an example, the Dusky Seaside
  Sparrow, with 5 individuals, no males.

157
Problems of Small Populations

• Environmental Variation Catastrophes
• environmental stochasticity

158
Problems of Small Populations

• Extinction Vortexes
• Environmental variation
• Catastrophic events
• Habitat destruction
• Environmental degradation
• Habitat fragmentation
• Overharvesting
• Effects of exotic species

159
Natural History

• Ecological questions
• environment
• distribution
• biotic interactions
• morphology
• physiology
• demography
• behavior
• genetics

160
Natural History

• Gathering Natural History Information
• published literature
• unpublished literature
• fieldwork

161

• Monitoring Populations
• Indicator Species
• Inventory
• Number of individuals within a population
• Population Survey
• Repeatable sampling, estimates density
• Demographic Studies
• Follow known individuals

162
Monitoring Fish Populations Caseys Lake
163

• Population Viability Analysis
• Extended demographic analysis
• determines species ability to persist in an
  environment
• species requirements compared to environmental
  resources

164

• Metapopulation
• core
• satellite areas
• variations
• 3 independent populations
• 3 interacting populations
• metapopulation with large core and several
  satellites
• metapopulation with complex interactions
• recognize local populations are dynamic
• endemic Furbish lousewort

165
Establishment of New Populations

• Three Approaches
• Reintroduction
• releases captive bred or wild collected to
  historic range
• Augmentation
• releasing individuals into existing population to
  increase gene pool
• Introduction
• moving individuals outside of historic range in
  hope of establishing new populations

166
Establishment of New Populations

• Considerations for Successful Programs
• expensive
• difficult
• serious long-term commitment
• political
• educational value
• extensive care perhaps

167
Establishment of New Populations

• Social Behavior of Released Animals
• Consider social organization behavior
• Establishing New Plant Populations
• Re-establishment Programs and the Law

168
Ex Situ Conservation Programs

• Off-site Preservation
• Zoos
• Innovative Reproductive Techniques
• Cross fostering
• Artificial insemination
• Artificial incubation
• Embryo transfer
• Aquariums
• Botanical Gardens Arboretums
• Seed Banks

169
Establishment of New Populations

• Seed Banks
• Sampling strategies for wild species
• Conservation of tree genetic resources
• Seed Savers

170
Conservation Categories of Species

• Extinct
• Extinct in the Wild
• Critically Endangered
• Endangered
• Vulnerable

• Conservation Dependent
• Near Threatened
• Least Concern
• Data Deficient
• Not Evaluated

171
Establishment of New Populations

• Iowas State Categories
• Extinct
• Endangered
• Threatened
• Special Concern

172
Establishment of New Populations

• IUCN
• Critical Species
• gt50 probability of extinction within 5 years or
  two generations
• Endangered
• 20-50 probability of extinction within 20 years
  or 10 generations
• Vulnerable
• 10-20 probability of extinction within 100 years

173
IUCN Categories

• Critically endangered
• 50 extinction probability within 10 years or 3
  generations
• Endangered
• 20 extinction probability within 20 years or 5
  generations
• Vulnerable
• 10 probability of extinction within 100 years

174
Classification Determinants

• Observable decline in numbers of individuals
• Size of geographical area, number of populations
• Number individuals living, number breeding
• Expected decline
• Probability of going extinct

175

• Conservation Community Level

Chapter 4
176
Protected Areas

• Nature Reserves Wilderness Areas
• National Parks
• National Monuments Landmarks
• Wildlife Sanctuaries Nature Reserves
• Protected Landscapes Seascapes
• Managed Resource Protected Areas

177
Strict Nature Reserves/Wilderness Areas

• Protect species
• Protect natural process
• Undisturbed state
• Provide representative examples of diversity
• For scientific study
• Education
• Environmental monitoring

178
National Parks

• Large areas
• Scenic and natural beauty
• Maintained to provide protection
• Use
• Scientific study
• Education
• Recreation
• Occassional commercial extraction of resources

179
National Monuments/Landmarks

• Smaller reserves
• Preserve unique biological, geological, or
  cultural features of special interest

180
Managed Wildlife Sanctuaries Nature Reserves

• Human manipulation involved
• Removing exotic species
• Prescribed burns
• Controlled harvest

181
Protected Landscapes Seascapes

• Allow traditional uses by resident peoples
• Notebly in areas with disinctive culture,
  aesthetic, or ecological characteristics
• Provide tourism and recreation

182
Managed Resource Protected Areas