Part Two: CrossCultural Adaptive Patterns

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Part Two Cross-Cultural Adaptive Patterns

• Chapter Five Obtaining Food and Allocating
  Resources
• An Evolutionary-Ecological Paradigm
• The Ecological Model
• Optimal Foraging Theory
• Foraging as an Adaptive Strategy
• The Foraging Spectrum
• Hunter-Gatherers
• Guayaki
• Technology as an Element in Adaptive Strategies
• Settlement Patterns
• Organization Groups
• Ownership
• Reciprocity
• Diet

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Classic Cultural Evolutionism and the emergence
of the Neo-evolutionists
Classical Cultural Evolutionism- period from the
1860s through the 1890s. While this period
followed publication of Darwins Origin of
Species (1859), cultural evolutionism does not
represent an application of Darwins biological
ideas to the realm of culture. The were more
interested in ethnography, archaeology, and the
expanded view of human history. Major players
Herbert Spencer (182-1903), L.H. Morgan
(1818-1881), E.B. Tylor (1832-1917) and James
Frazer (1854-1941). 1962 Elman Service
Primitive Social Organization An Evolutionary
Perspective.
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Archaeological Evidence Oldowan tool
tradition 2.5 to 1.5 million year ago
OLDOWAN CHOPPER COREOLDUVAI GORGE, TANZANIA
AFRICAUNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA--BERKELEY, DEPT.
OF ANTHROPOLOGY COLLECTION
KNM ER 1813
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OLDOWAN CHOPPER COREOLDUVAI GORGE, TANZANIA
AFRICAUNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA--BERKELEY, DEPT.
OF ANTHROPOLOGY COLLECTION
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Archaeological Evidence Acheulean Tool
Tradition 1.5 million years ago, to about 200 000
years ago
Acheulean hand ax
Homo erectus
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Mousterian France100,000 to 40,000 years ago
Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapien
neanderthalensis
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The Evolutionary-Ecological Paradigm
Evolutionary Ecology is the application of
natural selection theory to the study of
adaptation and biological design in an
ecological setting (Winterhalder and Smith
1992). It focuses on the interaction between
evolutionary forces and ecological variables in
the development of specific adaptations. Natural
selection refers to genetic change or changes in
the frequencies of certain traits in populations
due to differential reproductive success between
individuals. Selection is based on the
differences in fitness among individuals. The
so-called Darwinian fitness of an individual is
measured both by his capacity to survive and his
capacity to leave descendents
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The Evolutionary-Ecological Paradigm The
Ecological Model
Optimal Foraging Theory (OFT) and Predicting
Behavioral Variation On a microeconomic level,
attends to the rational decision making of
individuals under a set of specified conditions
that include limited resources and unlimited
needs In short, in certain arenas, human
decisions are made to maximize the net rate of
energy gain. Some of these arenas include choices
of diet, foraging location, foraging time,
foraging group size, and foraging location. OFT
is a major feature of prey selection and
predicts how people would behave functioning at
optimal levels
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Optimal Foraging Theory predicting patterns of
variation of subsistence
OFT general assumptions Behavior is subject to
natural selection Foraging behavior has been
selected to maximize fitness Net energetic
efficiency is a valid proxy measure of fitness
Foraging behavior maximizes net energetic
efficiency The environment is uniform A
forager searches through the environment at
random When he encounters a potential resource
he decides either to pursue it or ignore it and
continue searching He should ignore it if it
would be more energetically efficient to keep
searching, encounter another resource and pursue
and capture it
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Optimal Foraging Theory

• OFT Operational Procedures
• Resource costs (in hours) have 2 components
• Search costs
• Pursuit and processing costs
• All potential resources should be ranked
  according to

Pursuit /processing costs per calorie (Highest
rank lowest cost)
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How do we apply Optimal Foraging Theory?
Start with the top-ranked resource and calculate
the net energetic efficient as
Calories __________________________ Search
pursuit/processing costs

• And the 2nd ranked resource and recalculate if
  net efficiency increases,
• then 2nd resource is in the diet.
• Add the 3rd resource, recalculate, etc.
• Stop adding resources when the net energetic
  efficiency begins to decrease.
• Once this is done, the ones you have is the
  optimal diet and will maximize
• efficiency

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What are the implications?

• Only predicts an optimal diet of net energy
  efficiency
• is the only consideration
• Gives a ranked order of the diet based on
  availability
• Something that is not in the OD is not going to
  enter into the
• model mathematical if they become super abundant
• If high ranked food decreases in abundance the
  list
• broadens mathematically

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How does this predict changes in the diet?

• Technology snowmobiles, motors, guns, machetes
  etc
• This could lower overall search cost
• Spatial variation
• As you over-hunt big species, the list moves
  down.
• The role of big game increases as the distance
  from the
• village increases.
• Variation increases as the distance from the
  village decreases.

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Some criticisms of OFT

• Human behavior is difficult if impossible to
  predict. Therefore,
• it should be noted that OFT is a non-realistic
  model. As such,
• there are some criticisms.
• It ignores all nutrients
• Ignores any other way of measuring fitness
• Environments are not homogeneous
• Hunters do not wander aimlessly until they bump
  into something
• It ignores cultural values
• People value a variety in the diet
• It is really hard to measure costs. We can only
  measure the costs of
• the animals we know theyre hunting
• social factors
• Men and women are not pursuing the same diet
• Sharing
• Women tend to reward successful hunts with sexual
  favors
• (this may cause a deviation in the model)
• Prestige with big kills
• Food taboos

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Hunters and Gatherers Why do we study them?

• Different perspective on humanity
• Another way to live
• What past lives MIGHT have been like
• General way and diversity of H/G
• Patterns of behavior (OFT)

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Four Stereotypes with Hunter-Gatherers

• Ethnocentrism they are more primitive than us
• They are better that us (myth of the harmonious
  H/G)
• Homogenous Group-- one can represent the others
  (!Kung)
• H/G are close to nature but exert little control
  passive,
• Environmental determinism

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Hunting Practices

• Primary techniques used are the bow and arrow and
  blowgun
• Trapping and clubbing
• Use of dogs
• Varity of arrow tips used depending on the game
  being hunted

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Hunting in the Tropical Forest Potential
Problems
Problem Resources are scattered Solution This
can be solved by artificially concentrating crops
(planting) Problem Leached and Poor
soils Solution slash and burn shift
plots Problem getting other nutrition Solution
include fishing. Hunt for fat and
protein Problem arboreal prey is scattered and
not easy to see. Solution carefully select prey,
select technology and development However, cost
becomes a real barrier (OFT).
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Tropical Hunter-Gatherers Guayaki of Paraguay

• Aspects of the Guayaki
• Bands of 20
• Highly mobile
• Defined territory (300 sgm)
• Men hunt (6hr) woman gather (2hr)
• Women do all domestic chores
• Woman move the camps
• Diet is mainly palm pith and Larvae
• Average caloric intake is 3500 (U.S. 2000-2500)
• Meat is 58 of the diet
• High infant mortality. Most are accidents and
  murder
• Average birth per woman is 7
• Very fearful and evasive of other people and
  predators
• Food economy every day for that day

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Technology
The Guayaki are nomadic hunter-gatherers. As a
result, their technology is adapted to a roving
existence moving almost daily Journey is
difficult because of the dense vegetation The
quantities of goods and instruments are limited
to what the woman can carry Goods stored in
baskets Able to adapt technically
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Technology Men
Revolves around hunting Bow (6.5-7.5 ft) String
made by women Arrow (5.8-6.8 ft) feathers from
predatory birds Shoot up to 100 yd kill at
45-50yd Different tips for different game Stone
hatchet Hatchet Boar spear
Women
Household goods Baskets Pottery Rope
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Settlement Patterns
Rapidly organized Never in the same spot for
more than two of three days Spot is chosen
based on location to water source. Close enough
to be near water but far enough from enemies
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Organization of Group
Small family bands of 20-40 No centralized
leadership Egalitarian
Property and Ownership
Ownership of items is gender specific Each band
has a defined territory
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Reciprocity
Generalized- when everyone gives of time, food,
and artifacts with no one keeping record of what
is being given or received. Balanced-
gift-giving and favors which are reciprocated In
a timely manner. Negative- when one tries to get
more than is given.