CRITICAL THINKING

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CRITICAL THINKING
The Thinker, Auguste Rodin, 1879-1889
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WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?

• Critical thinking df. The careful, deliberate
  determination of whether we should accept,
  reject, or suspend judgement about a claim and
  of the degree of confidence with which we should
  accept or reject it.
• MP (Moore and Parker) The ability to think
  critically is vitally important in fact our
  lives depend on it. The way we conduct our lives
  depends on what we believe to be true on what
  claims we accept.
• MP The more carefully we evaluate a claim and
  the more fully we separate issues that are
  relevant to it from those that are not, the more
  critical is our thinking.

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GOALS OF CRITICAL THINKING

• MP Thinking critically is not about attacking
  other people.
• What is critiqued is the ideas of people, not the
  people themselves who hold the ideas.
• The goal of philosophy is knowledge through a
  disinterested search for truth, not winning or
  simply appearing to defeat another in argument.
• Critical thinking helps both ourselves and others
  when it helps us recognize that a position,
  theory, or idea is incomplete or unclear,
  insufficiently supported, or in some other way
  unconvincing, and thus helps us to arrive at the
  truth which is the goal of knowledge seekers.

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SKILLS INVOLVED IN CRITICAL THINKING

• Careful listening and reasoning.
• Finding hidden assumptions.
• Tracing the consequences of claims.
• Determining the credibility of sources.
• Recognizing and avoiding various sorts of
  rhetoric and pseudoreasoning.
• Analyzing and evaluating arguments.

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WHAT IS A CLAIM?

• A claim df. A statement that is either true or
  false.
• A claim must always have a truth value.
• There are two truth values true and false.
• A claim is a statement which makes an assertion
  about reality which either is the case (true) or
  is not the case (false).

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CLAIMS AND LANGUAGE

• Not every kind of linguistic construction is a
  claim, since not every kind of linguistic
  construction that we use and understand is a
  statement that makes an assertion about reality
  that is either true or false.
• For instance, asking what time it is is not a
  claim. Neither is saying hello to someone,
  expressing a regret about something, or
  requesting a favor.
• Although such instances involve reality, they do
  not make assertions about reality, and so are not
  statements which have truth values. Because a
  claim must always have a truth value, these
  instances of language use are not claims.

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EXAMPLES OF CLAIMS

• We are now in a room in Kettler Hall at IPFW.
• We are now on the moon.
• Philosophy 120 at IPFW is history of ancient
  philosophy.
• Philosophy 120 at IPFW is critical thinking.
• The universe has three dimensions of space and
  one dimension of time.
• The universe has ten dimensions of space and one
  dimension of time.
• Picasso is a greater painter than Rembrandt.
• Rembrandt is a greater painter than Picasso.

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THE NATURE OF A CLAIM I

• Claims communicate information. This is what is
  meant by saying that they are statements which
  make assertions about reality.
• Even though a claim is a statement which is
  either true or false, we may not be able to
  determine whether the truth value of a claim is
  true or false.
• Even if a claim concerns a matter of fact the
  universe having four or eleven dimensions we
  may not be able to determine its truth value
  now or in the future.
• Other types of claim, such as those concerning
  relative artistic achievement, may also involve
  factors, such as subjective preferences, which
  make assigning a truth value to the claim that
  would be universally accepted difficult.

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THE NATURE OF A CLAIM II

• Claims are also use to accomplish a variety of
  goals.
• Claims are not only used to communicate
  information. Claims can also be used to, among
  other things, persuade, warn, amuse, comfort, or
  annoy people.
• MP There will often be times when a persons
  motivation for making a claim is more important
  than the information contained in the claim
  itself. For instance if one person wants to sell
  another person something, and claims that his
  product is better than others.

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RESPONDING TO CLAIMS I

• Claims can be responded to in a variety of ways.
  
• For instance, claims can be ignored or
  considered they can be questioned or challenged
  they can be criticized or defended and they can
  be taken seriously or ridiculed.
• However, the usual response to a claim is to
  determine whether or not it ought to be accepted.
  Or, if that cant be determined, then judgement
  is suspended.

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RESPONDING TO CLAIMS II

• We accept or reject a claim with varying degrees
  of confidence. Thus, we may think that a claim is
  true without being absolutely certain that it is
  true, or we may reject a claim for lack of
  evidence in its favor without being sure of its
  falsity.
• MP The degree of confidence in our acceptance
  or rejection of a claim should depend on the
  amount of evidence we have for or against the
  claim.

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RESPONDING TO CLAIMS III

• Thinking occurs in the world not in a vacuum -
  and, as such, there is a certain amount of
  information available to us which is relevant to
  evaluating the truth value of a claim.
• MP Having the desire and the ability to bring
  such relevant information to bear on our
  decisions on evaluating claims is part of the
  critical-thinking process.
• MP Critical thinking involves a lot of skills,
  including the abilities to listen and read
  carefully, to evaluate arguments, to look for and
  find hidden assumptions, and to trace the
  consequences of a claim.

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RESPONDING TO CLAIMS IV

• The previous points illustrate that there is no
  simple way of deciding to accept or reject a
  claim.
• Claims should be judged according to reasons in
  favor of or against them, but there is no
  shortcut to determining what constitutes a good
  reason for accepting or rejecting a claim.
• How do we learn to recognize a good reason for
  accepting or rejecting a claim? Through example,
  illustration, and informed guidance which is
  what this course is about teaching.

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RESPONDING TO CLAIMS V

• Thinking critically means rationally determining
  whether or not to accept a claim, and for a
  person to think critically it must first be
  determined that he/she is focusing on the correct
  claim.
• An issue df. Any matter of controversy or
  uncertainty. Such a matter may be in dispute, in
  doubt, or simply under consideration.
• MP Issue is used to identify the focus of a
  debate, discussion, or dispute. An issue is
  often introduced by the word whether whether
  or not students are better now than five years
  ago is an issue.

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ISSUES I

• An issue can be considered by two or more
  individuals, or by a single individual. For
  instance, debating correct foreign policy is a
  group issue, while deciding where to attend
  college is an issue which a single person can
  consider.
• What makes something an issue is its being a
  matter of controversy, and hence an issue has an
  uncertain truth value relative to the person or
  persons for whom the matter is uncertain. (There
  is an independent truth about the existence of
  life elsewhere in the universe, but it is a
  debated subject between scientists, and so is an
  issue because we dont know the truth value of
  the claim that life exists elsewhere.)

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ISSUES II

• Trying to ascertain the correct truth value of an
  issue involves thinking critically.
• Issues can be posed in a number of ways, and are
  different from topics of conversation.
• Wondering if religion has had a positive impact
  on history is an issue which can be rephrased as
  whether religion has made useful contributions to
  civilization.
• Baseball or traveling in the Alps can be topics
  of conversation, but neither is an issue.

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ISSUES III

• MP An issue is not a psychological problem,
  or an issue is not something a person has (or
  has got) such as a fear or worry rather an
  issue is something a person raises or addresses
  or tries to resolve.
• An issue, to be satisfying and to be resolvable,
  should be focused on one clear and precise
  question.
• MP A worthwhile discussion focuses on a single
  topic and then on a particular question at issue,
  otherwise the ensuing argument will be
  disorganized and incoherent.

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ISSUES IV

• Sometimes arguments address issues which are
  related but which are not the same. (See the two
  examples on pp. 8-9.) Here we need to think
  critically in order to see that the issues are
  not the same, and when people are discussing the
  same issue we need critical thinking to evaluate
  the issue being discussed.
• Also, Sometimes people purposely confuse issues
  in order to draw attention away from a claim they
  dont want to deal with or to make it look as
  though they have proved a point when in fact they
  havent.

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ARGUMENTS AND THEIR PARTS I

• An argument df. An attempt to support a claim
  (the conclusion) by providing a reason or reasons
  for believing it (the premises).
• Accordingly, in a argument, premises are
  designed to provide support for a conclusion.
• The conclusion (of an argument) df. The claim
  one attempts to support, or the claim for which
  one argues.
• The premises (of an argument) df. The claims
  that serve as reasons for believing the
  conclusion.

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ARGUMENTS AND THEIR PARTS II

• Thus an argument is a set of claims that involves
  the relations of claims to one another.
• The relations between an arguments claims are
  that the premises support the conclusion or that
  the conclusion follows from the premises. (Recall
  that a claim is a statement that is true or
  false.)
• MP The construction, evaluation, and, where
  necessary, criticism of arguments is really at
  the heart of critical thinking.

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FACTS I

• A fact df. A claim that is either true the
  stronger sense or for which there is excellent
  evidence or justification the weaker sense.
• A fact in the stronger sense is something that is
  the case, and its a fact that in this stronger
  sense means the same thing as its true that. A
  fact in the stronger sense is not subject to
  revision.
• A fact in the weaker sense is something that is
  taken to be the case for excellent reason(s).
  However, if these reasons are later thought to
  fall short, then a fact in the weaker sense can
  be revised, or replaced by a fact or facts for
  which there is better justification.

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FACTS II

• Ordinarily, its a fact that means the same
  thing as its true that. Thus, more typically,
  when we talk of a fact, it is implicit that we
  are talking about it in the stronger sense.
• Notice though that the claims which we take to be
  true are claims for which we have excellent
  evidence or justification for making. For
  instance, that we are now in this room is a claim
  which we take to be true and for which the
  evidence is excellent.
• This is also an example which could come to
  represent a fact in the weaker sense if it were
  proved to be true that we are not now in this
  room, but were in fact (in the stronger sense)
  dreaming or having a hallucination. (Of course,
  it also could not come to represent a weaker
  fact, and this would be the case as long as we do
  not have excellent evidence for thinking that we
  are not now in the room.)

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FACTS III

• Facts in the stronger sense what we will from
  now on mean by fact are things which are the
  case whether anyone believes or asserts them to
  be true or not, and which may be true whether or
  not the evidence for them is excellent.
• In fact, in some cases we may have no evidence
  for a fact at all! Imagine, for instance, that
  everything in the universe has just doubled in
  size, but it does so so quickly that no one can
  detect the expansion. In addition, all our
  measuring instruments and physical constants
  such as the speed of light also double, and so
  continue to record the old size of the universe.
  By the very nature of the case then we could
  never know that the universe had doubled in size
  even if it had. But notice that it would still be
  a fact that it had doubled, and notice that any
  claim that it had doubled would not have been
  based on excellent evidence or justification.

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OPINIONS

• An opinion df. A claim that somebody believes to
  be true.
• The term opinion refers to belief in a claim,
  or something is true in my opinion when I judge
  it to be true.
• As MP say, things are judged to be true often
  after a certain amount of thought.
• Some opinions are true, or factual, and others
  are not. For instance, my opinion that I am here
  now is true, and stating that I am here now
  states a fact. My opinion that I am on Mars now
  is false, and my stating that I am on Mars now
  says something false.

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TWO TYPES OF CLAIM

• An objective claim df. A claim about a factual
  matter.
• MP Objective claims are statements that are
  true or false regardless of our personal
  preferences, tastes, biases, and so on. For
  instance, that we die is an objective claim
  whether we like the idea of dying or not.
• A subjective claim df. A claim about a matter of
  pure opinion.
• MP Subjective claims are expressions of those
  preferences, tastes, biases, and so on, although
  they may at first appear to be about something
  else. For instance, claiming that modern art is
  better than classical art, or that squid is
  better than hamburger, are kinds of claim which
  could be seen to be based on personal
  preferences, although some philosophers would say
  that the first remark can be disputed but not the
  second.

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SUBJECTIVE CLAIMS

• Where subjective claims simply state preferences,
  two subjective claims which say different things
  can be equally correct. That Angela prefers
  risotto and Max prefers beef can both be correct
  because each is really expressing his own
  tastes.
• That a claim is controversial does not make it
  subjective.
• There can be disagreement about an issue, but if
  there are or can be procedures by which the truth
  of the issue can be determined, then the
  controversy concerns a factual matter and so is
  not merely subjective.
• For instance, evolution may be controversial, but
  it is not subjective, since the claim that
  evolution is true can be tested to determine its
  truth.

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DISPUTED CLAIMS I

• It may not be clear, or may be a matter of
  dispute, whether a particular claim or a certain
  type of claim is objective or subjective.
• An example of a particular claim that some may
  consider to be subjective and others to be
  objective is Mozarts music is better than
  Madonnas.
• An example of a certain type of claim that some
  may think is subjective and others think is
  objective is Tastes cannot be disputed, or
  There is no moral right or wrong apart from the
  views of some group or individual.

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DISPUTED CLAIMS II

• Whatever the truth of such matters, and whether
  or not we can finally determine the truth about
  them, it is still the case that some opinions are
  better reasoned indeed, more intelligent than
  others.
• Note too that someone who wants to maintain the
  subjectivity of a particular or general claim
  must give reasons for maintaining that it is
  correct to see the claim as subjective rather
  than objective. That is, one must argue in an
  intelligent manner, and take relevant evidence
  into consideration otherwise the assertion that
  a claim is subjective amounts to no more than an
  unsupported opinion.

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FACTS, OPINIONS,AND CLAIMS I

• Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be
  kept separate, just as we must distinguish
  subjective and objective claims.
• It is a serious mistake to treat a matter of fact
  as if it were simply a matter of mere opinion.
• MP Calling a matter of fact pure opinion can
  be an excuse for failing to pursue an issue it
  can be a way of avoiding a difficult problem or
  abandoning it before weve tried our best to
  settle it one way or another.

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FACTS, OPINIONS,AND CLAIMS II(A REVIEW)

• 1. That a claim states a fact means that it is
  true.
• 2. That a claim states an opinion just means that
  someone believes it to be true.
• 3. Some opinions are helpful, important, and
  true others are false, silly, or dangerous.
• 4. Some claims are objective they are about
  matters of fact.
• 5. Other claims are subjective they are about
  matters of pure opinion personal preferences,
  tastes and so on.

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RIGHTS AND KNOWLEDGE I

• Everyone has a right to his or her opinion
  states a moral law that we take freedom of
  thought to be something to which we are morally
  entitled.
• While it is true that everyone is so entitled to
  an opinion, it is not true that all opinions are
  equal.
• Some opinions are better than others, namely,
  those opinions which are true or which are
  statements of fact.

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RIGHTS AND KNOWLEDGE II

• MP One opinion may be much more intelligent,
  much more practical, much more humane than some
  other opinion.
• You have the right to believe that 225, but it
  is more intelligent to believe that it equals 4.
  You have the right to believe that the shortest
  distance between two points is a curve, but it is
  more practical to think that it is a straight
  line. And you have the right to believe that
  cruelty is the best way to treat others, but it
  is more humane to believe that we ought to be
  kind to others.

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RIGHTS AND KNOWLEDGE III

• MP Some opinions are so bad, so stupid, or so
  dangerous that it may be hazardous or even
  immoral to hold them. (An example of an opinion
  that is both bad and stupid is that all opinions
  are equal since all people are equally entitled
  to their opinions.)
• A bad consequence of treating all opinions as
  being equal is that it keeps people from talking
  and reasoning with one another. We shouldnt
  confuse the equal value of people with the equal
  value of peoples opinions.

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KINDS OF BELIEF AND TRUTH

• Opinions, views, convictions, and prejudices are
  different kinds of belief, and when you express
  something you believe, you make a claim.
• Remember that a claim is a statement which is
  true or false.
• And remember that a claim, if true, states a
  fact.
• MP The primary job of critical thinking is
  getting at the truth that is, discovering which
  claims are true and which are false.
• MP The truth of a claim is an objective fact
  about the world, something that does not depend
  on our feelings and beliefs.
• And facts are facts whether we know them or not.

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STANDARDS OF TRUTH

• For MP it is not necessary to be able to prove
  what we know about reality with mathematical
  certainty. In fact, this standard for facts
  about the world is too high.
• MP For our purposes, well say that we know
  such and such is true if we believe it is true
  and have evidence that shows that it is true
  beyond any reasonable doubt.
• For instance I believe that I am now in this room
  because I have good evidence through my senses
  that I am in the room, others agree with me, and
  there is no good reason to think that we are
  mistaken due to something like dreaming or
  hallucinations.

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THINKING AND FEELING

• Critical thinking is about applying reason to
  making decisions, but thinking does not exclude
  feeling.
• Feelings, with thinking, are an essential aspect
  of our humanity. And feelings and emotions can
  cause or influence decisions we make.
• However, it is critical that we exercise
  carefully our capacity to reason to consider
  relevant facts and cogent arguments if we are
  going to be good, intelligent thinkers.

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SUMMARY I

• A claim is a statement which is true or false.
• Critical thinking is the careful, deliberate
  determination of whether we should accept,
  reject, or suspend judgement about a claim.
• Our acceptance or rejection of a claim with a
  certain degree of confidence that need not be
  absolute.
• An issue is any matter of controversy or
  uncertainty.
• Accordingly, that which is considered in
  considering the truth value of a claim is an
  issue.

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SUMMARY II

• An argument is a set of related claims such that
  a conclusion is drawn from reasons or premises
  which support the conclusion.
• A premise is the claim or claims in an argument
  that provide the reasons for believing the
  conclusion.
• A conclusion is the claim that is argued for in
  an argument.
• An opinion is a belief in the truth of a claim.
• A fact is a true claim.

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SUMMARY III

• A subjective claim is about a matter of pure
  opinion, and expresses a persons tastes or
  preferences.
• An objective claim is about a matter of fact. A
  claim is objective when there are generally
  agreed upon ways of determining whether a claim
  is true or false.
• All people are equal and have equal rights as
  moral subjects, but not all opinions are equal.
  Those opinions which are supported by the
  evidence and/or which are carefully reasoned are
  worthy of consideration, while those which are
  not are not.
• A critical thinker is one who has the motivation
  and the skills to know the difference between
  good and bad opinions.