Socrates The Original Critical Thinker

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SocratesThe Original Critical Thinker
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• I. Socrates Biography and Background

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Biography

• Born, 469 BC in Athens died, 399 BC
• in Athens.
• Fought with distinctive courage and
• endurance against Sparta during the
• Peloponnesian war.
• Socrates returns to raise family with
• wife Xanthippe.
• Soon thereafter began his famous
• "mission".
• Was tried and found guilty of impiety
• by an Athenian jury, and sentenced to
• death.
• Drank hemlock, and died in 399 BC.

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Chaerephon and Apollo's temple at Delphi

• Socrates' friend, Chaerephon, goes to
• Apollo's temple at Delphi, and asks the
• Oracle, Is any man wiser than Socrates?
• The Oracle replies, No one is wiser.
• Socrates is perplexed, not thinking
• himself wise at all.

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Socrates' Wisdom

• Socrates questions a leading political figure
  reputed to be wise, perhaps the famous Perricles,
  to find someone wiser than he.
• "I thought that he appeared wise to many people
  and especially to himself, but he was not. I then
  tried to show him that he thought himself wise,
  but that he was not. As a result he came to
  dislike me, and so did many of the bystanders. So
  I withdrew and thought to myself "I am wiser
  than this man it is likely that neither of us
  knows anything worthwhile, but he thinks he knows
  something when does not, whereas when I do not
  know, neither do I think I know so I am likely
  to be wiser to this small extent, that I do not
  think I know what I do not know" From Plato's
  Apology

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Socrates' Mission

• Socrates' interpretation of the Oracle.
• "This man, among you mortals, is wisest who,
  like Socrates, understands that his wisdom his
  worthless."
• Socrates' mission for the good of Athens, for
  the good of individuals,
• show Athenians that they do not know what they
  think they do about
• worthwhile things.

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Worthwhile Knowledge

• Knowledge of the good of Athens, and the good of
  individuals, or what it is to live a good human
  life.
• virtue a state of character that governs one's
  emotional responses, and hence one's actions.
• Traditional Greek virtues justice, courage,
  moderation, piety, magnificence, knowledge, etc.
  
• What is justice?
• What is courage?
• What is piety?

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Socrates' trial and death.

• At around the age of 70, Socrates is accused of
  three crimes
• i. Corrupting the youth.
• ii. Not believing in the city's "official" gods.
• iii. Introducing new gods.
• He goes to trial, is convicted of the crimes, and
  is sentenced to death.
• While having the opportunity to flee in exile, he
  rather chooses death. He drinks hemlock while in
  prison, and dies.
• Trial portrayed in Plato's Apology.
• Death portrayed in Plato's Phaedo.

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• II. Plato's Euthyphro

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The Euthyphro

• Written by Plato, one of the youths who followed
  Socrates around, watching him examine people, and
  later a philosopher of great influence on Western
  civilization.
• The Euthyphro likely portrays an "Plato"
  (427-347 BC)
• actual discussion.
• Euthyphro was a real person, reputed to be
• wise about religious matters.
• The logical techniques Socrates employs
• are almost certainly those of the actual
• Socrates.

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Two Logical Techniques

• 1. The elenchus (refutation), aka "The Socratic
  Method"
• 2. Judging according to forms.

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Scene Setting

• Socrates meets Euthyphro outside the King
  Archon's office, on his way to a preliminary
  hearing on charges of impiety. Euthyphro tells
  Socrates that he's prosecuting his father for
  murder. Now, normally, such a thing would have
  been regarded as utterly impious. So, Socrates,
  quite surprised,

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The Forms

• If Euthyphro judges that prosecuting his father
  is the pious thing to do, then he's saying that
  there is some particular thing, the prosecution
  of his father, and it has some characteristics,
  or properties, in virtue of which it is correct
  to say that it is pious.
• The characteristics or properties, in virtue of
  which it is correct to say that his action is
  pious, is the form of piety.
• Socrates assumes that if Euthyprho knows that
  his action, prosecuting his father for murder, is
  in fact pious, then he must know the form of
  piety, i.e., he must know what characteristics
  something must have in order to be pious. So, he
  asks Euthyphro what this form is. If Socrates
  can learn what the form of piety, then he use can
  use it to judge whether an action is pious or
  not, by determining whether an action has the
  characteristics that constitute the form of
  piety.

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Euthyphro's First Attempt

• "Piety is doing what I am doing, prosecuting one
  who is guilty of murder, sacrilege, or of any
  similar crime--whether he be your father or
  mother, . . . and not to prosecute is impiety."

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Euthyphro's Second Definition

• "Piety, then, is that which is dear to the gods,
  and impiety is that which is not dear to them."
• This satisfies Socrates to one extent.
• 1. Piety is that which is dear to the gods.
• 2. My prosecution of my father is dear to the
  gods.
• -------
• 3. My prosecution of my father is pious.
• Euthyphro has given Socrates an account of a
  form, on the basis of which one can judge whether
  an action is pious or not.
• But . . .

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• Propositions asserted or assented to by
  Euthyphro.
• 1. Euthyphro's account of piety The pious is
  that which is beloved by the gods and the impious
  is that which is hated by the gods.
• 2. The pious and impious are opposites.
• 3. The gods have differences of opinions about
  what is just and unjust, what is good and evil.
• 4. People hate what they believe is unjust and
  evil, and they love what they believe is just and
  good.
• Socrates will next show that this set of
  propositions is inconsistent.

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• A set of propositions is inconsistent if and
  only if it is not possible all of the
  propositions of the set are true at the same
  time. Notes
• George W. Bush is 6 feet tall.
  inconsistent
• George W. Bush is 7 feet tall.
• Xanthippe watched Socrates die a natural death.
• Socrates fought bravely at Delium.
  inconsistent
• Socrates died by drinking hemlock.

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• A set of propositions is consistent if, and only
  if, it is possible all the propositions of the
  set are true (even if they are not actually
  true.)
• George W. Bush is president of the U.S.
• Colin Powell is U.S. Secretary of State.
• Jenny McCarthy doesn't have a TV show.
  consistent
• CSUS is south of the American River
• George W. Bush is CEO of Texaco.
• Al Gore is President of the U.S.
  consistent
• CSUS is north of the American River

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The Socratic Method at Work

• Propositions asserted or assented to by
  Euthyphro.
• 1. Euthyphro's account of piety The pious is
  that which is beloved by the gods and the impious
  is that which is hated by the gods.
• 2. The pious and impious are opposites.
• 3. The gods have differences of opinions about
  what is just and unjust, what is good and evil.
• 4. People hate what they believe is unjust and
  evil, and they love what they believe is just and
  good.
• 5. There's at least one thing, let it be X, that
  some gods love and some gods hate. (Entailed by 3
  4)
• 6. X is both pious and impious. (Entailed by 5
  1, the account of piety)
• 7. It is not the case that anything is both pious
  and impious (2).
• 8. It is not the case that X is both pious and
  impious. (Entailed by 7)

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The Socratic Method at Work

• Propositions asserted or assented to by
  Euthyphro.
• 1. Euthyphro's account of piety The pious is
  that which is beloved by the gods and the impious
  is that which is hated by the gods.
• 2. The pious and impious are opposites.
• 3. The gods have differences of opinions about
  what is just and unjust, what is good and evil.
• 4. People hate what they believe is unjust and
  evil, and they love what they believe is just and
  good.
• 6. X is both pious and impious. (Entailed by 5
  1, the account of piety)
• 8. It is not the case that X is both pious and
  impious. (Entailed by 7)
• 6 and 8 are a contradiction.

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The Socratic Method at Work

• Propositions asserted or assented to by
  Euthyphro.
• 1. Euthyphro's account of piety The pious is
  that which is beloved by the gods and the impious
  is that which is hated by the gods.
• 2. The pious and impious are opposites.
• 3. The gods have differences of opinions about
  what is just and unjust, what is good and evil.
• 4. People hate what they believe is unjust and
  evil, and they love what they believe is just and
  good.
• We know that the set is inconsistent--not all
  can be true. So, Euthyphro cannot believe that
  1-4 are true. But, Socrates' reasoning does not
  tell Euthyphro which of the four he should
  abandon, or give up, in order to gain a
  consistent set of beliefs.
• Euthyphro gives up 1, his account of what piety
  is.

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The "elenchus" or the Socratic Method

• 1. Socrates asks someone reputed to know what X
  is, "What is X?"
• 2. The interlocutor gives an answer X is Y and
  Z.
• 3. Socrates gets the interlocutor to assent to a
  number of very plausible or certainly true
  propositions P, Q, and R.
• 4. The account of X, together with P, Q, and R,
  make up a set of propositions Socrates will show
  is inconsistent.
• 5. Hence, the interlocutor must abandon some of
  his stated beliefs.
• 6. Given P, Q, and R are usually very plausible
  or certainly true, the interlocutor abandons his
  definition of X, and hence at that point, must
  admit that he doesn't know what X is, or hasn't
  adequately expressed his knowledge of X.

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Euthyphro's Third Account of Piety

• If an interlocutor gives up an account, then the
  interlocutor has a choice. He can admit he
  doesn't know what he says he knows, or he can try
  again and express what he thinks he knows.
• Euthyphro tries again . . .
• "Euth. Yes, I should say that what all the gods
  love is pious and the opposite, which they all
  hate, is the impious."
• Socrates again performs the "elenchus".

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• III. Ancient Wisdom Making Judgments According
  to "Forms".

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Making judgments based on forms

• If you know that some particular item or object,
  X, is F, then you must know two things.
• 1. You must know the "form" of F-ness.
• 2. You must know that X has the characteristics
  or properties that constitute the form of F-ness.
  
• Euthyphro My prosecution of my father (X) is
  pious (F).
• Euthyphro must know (i) what the form of piety
  is, what characteristics make something pious,
  and (ii) that his prosecution of his father has
  the characteristics that make something pious.

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• 1. All human beings are mortal.
• 2. Osama bin Laden is a human being.
• --------
• 3. Osama bin Laden is mortal.
• "Is this argument sound? Don't guess. Don't use
  your intuition. Judge whether it is sound in
  accordance with the account (form) of soundness."
  
• a. This argument is sound.
• b. This argument is not sound.
• 1. A sound argument is an argument that is valid
  and has all true premises.
• 2. This argument is valid and has all true
  premises.
• ----
• 3. This argument is sound.

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• 1. All human beings are mortal.
• 2. Osama bin Laden is a human being.
• --------
• 3. Osama bin Laden is mortal.
• "Is this argument sound? Don't guess. Don't use
  your intuition. Judge whether it is sound in
  accordance with the definition of validity."
• a. This argument is sound.
• b. This argument is not sound.
• 1. A sound argument is valid and has all true
  premises.
• 2. This argument does not possess all true
  premises.
• ------
• 3. This argument is not sound.

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"Imminent Threat"

• Opponents of invading Iraq claimed ad nauseum
  that Iraq was not an imminent threat. Some
  proponents of the war claimed Iraq was an
  imminent threat. Not once did I hear anyone one
  either side actually say what the "form" of an
  imminent threat is. Not once did I hear a
  journalist demand anyone explain what an imminent
  threat was. As a result, the public "debate" over
  the justification of the war was diffuse and
  ineffective.
• Senator Kennedy Iraq is not an imminent threat!
  Senate Floor, Sept 8, 2002.
• "There is clearly a threat from Iraq, and there
  is clearly a danger, but the Administration has
  not made a convincing case that we face such an
  imminent threat to our national security that a
  unilateral, pre-emptive American strike and an
  immediate war are necessary."
• Kennedy, Sept. 27, 2002. School of Advanced
  International Studies.

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• Senator Kennedy, what is (the form of) an
  imminent threat, and why think Iraq lacks the
  characteristics that make something an imminent
  threat?
• Some Republican congressman Of course Iraq is an
  imminent threat, and that's why we should attack.
  
• Congressman, what is (the form of) an imminent
  threat, and why should we think Iraq possess the
  characteristics that make something an imminent
  threat?

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Imminent threat in international law

• In 1837, British troops in Canada cross the
  border and attack a U.S. civilian ship, the
  Caroline, which was supplying Canadian rebels
  with supplies.
• Daniel Webster, U.S. Secretary of State, in a
  letter to the British foreign minister, argued
  that the British attack was unjustified, on the
  grounds that one cannot preemptively attack
  unless the threat is "instant, overwhelming, and
  leaving no choice of means, and no moment for
  deliberation." The British agreed with the
  principle.
• With the agreement by the British, and the public
  assertion of the principle by government
  officials of many countries over the years, the
  principle became a principle of "customary
  international law".

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The Bush Pre-emption Doctrine

• "For centuries, international law recognized
  that nations need not suffer an attack before
  they can lawfully take action to defend
  themselves against forces that present an
  imminent danger of attack. Legal scholars and
  international jurists often conditioned the
  legitimacy of preemption on the existence of an
  imminent threatmost often a visible mobilization
  of armies, navies, and air forces preparing to
  attack. We must adapt the concept of imminent
  threat to the capabilities and objectives of
  todays adversaries, . . .. The United States has
  long maintained the option of preemptive actions
  to counter a sufficient threat to our national
  security. The greater the threat, the greater is
  the risk of inaction and the more compelling the
  case for taking anticipatory action to defend
  ourselves, even if uncertainty remains as to the
  time and place of the enemys attack. To
  forestall or prevent such hostile acts by our
  adversaries, the United States will, if
  necessary, act preemptively."
• The National Security Strategy of the U.S.A,
  Ch. 5
• September 17, 2002

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• Senator Kennedy, what is (the form of) an
  imminent threat, and why should we think Iraq is
  not an imminent threat?
• Senator Kennedy An imminent threat is a threat
  of attack that is "instant, overwhelming, and
  leaving no choice of means, and no moment for
  deliberation" to avoid. Iraq poses no threat that
  is instant, overwhelming, and leaves no choice of
  means, and no moment for deliberation. So, Iraq
  is not an imminent threat.
• Reporter Are you saying that the Bush
  administration's doctrine is that threat from
  Iraq is instant, overwhelming, leaving no choice
  of means, and no moment for deliberation?
• Kennedy Er, yes.
• Reporter That's not what their position is.

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• Reporter Are you saying that US is justified in
  attacking Iraq only if threat is instant,
  overwhelming, leaving no choice for means, and no
  moment for deliberation?
• Kennedy Er, Yes.
• Reporter Why think that?
• Kennedy It's a principle of customary
  international law.
• Bush Folks, raise your hands if you care about
  customary international law? The Senator cares
  only for following old, outdated customs, and not
  about protecting the US from terrorism. Iraq is a
  serious and grave threat. We must attack.

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• Reporter President, what is (the form of) a
  serious and grave threat, and why should we think
  Iraq possesses the characteristics that make it a
  serious and grave threat?
• Bush A serious and grave threat is a threat that
  is X, Y, and Z.
• Iraq is X, Y, and Z. So, Iraq is a serious and
  grave threat.
• (Reporter Why are we justified in attacking a
  nation because it is X, Y, and Z?)

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Some Lessons

• 1. Public debate would be more thorough, more
  effective if the participants were either forced
  to state the "forms" on the basis of which they
  make their judgments, or did so voluntarily.
• 2. Politicians, and other participants, in public
  debate, usually fail to state the "forms" on the
  basis of which they make their judgments. Why?
• A. Like many of us, they simply don't make their
  judgments on any explicitly recognized "form".
  As Socrates would say, they, like many of us,
  don't really know what we say we do.

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• B. Many issues in public debate are after all
  fairly intricate and uncertain. If an advocate in
  public debate fully reveals the "forms" on the
  basis of which he makes judgments, he opens
  himself up to attack and criticism on the finer,
  less than certain points of his position. He then
  can't appear sure and certain that he knows the
  best position to take, if he's stuck in debate on
  less than certain and controversial points. So,
  the advocate usually ends up just repeating the
  judgment, ad naseum, while pointing in vague ways
  to evidence that might appear to support his
  judgment.

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(No Transcript)
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• Making judgments according to forms.

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• Socrates if Euthyphro knows that prosecuting his
  father for murder is pious, then he must know two
  things.
• 1. He must know what the form of piety is. I.e.,
  he must know what characteristics or properties
  something has in virtue of which it is true to
  say it is pious.
• 2. He must know that his own action, prosecuting
  his father for murder, possesses the
  characteristics that constitute the form of
  piety.

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• All human beings are mortal.
• Osama bin Laden is a human being.
• --------
• Osama bin Ladin is mortal.
• "Is the argument sound? Don't guess. Judge it
  according to the definition of soundness."
• If someone knows that this argument is sound,
  then she knows two things.
• 1. She knows what the form of a sound argument
  is, i.e., what characteristics something must
  possess to be a sound argument.
• 2. She knows that this argument actually
  possesses those characteristics.

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• How you can use the notion of a form.

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In Argument Criticism

• Whenever someone makes a claim of the form, X is
  F, if they know that
• X is F, then he knows two things.
• 1. What the form of F is, ie., what
  characteristics or properties something must have
  in order to be F.
• 2. That X possesses the characteristics that
  constitute the form.

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In Argument Criticism

• Whenever someone makes a claim of the form, X is
  F, if they know that
• X is F, then he knows two things.
• 1. What the form of F is, ie., what
  characteristics or properties something must have
  in order to be F.
• 2. That X possesses the characteristics that
  constitute the form.
• Press the greater majority of people on both of
  these points, and they
• usually crack.
• "Iraq is an immanent threat."
• 1. What is an imminent threat?
• 2. Why think Iraq possesses the characteristics
  that make something an imminent threat?

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In Argument Criticism

• Whenever someone makes a claim of the form, X is
  F, if they know that
• X is F, then he knows two things.
• 1. What the form of F is, ie., what
  characteristics or properties something must have
  in order to be F.
• 2. That X possesses the characteristics that
  constitute the form.
• Press the greater majority of people on both of
  these points, and they
• usually crack.
• "Iraq is not an immanent threat."
• 1. What is an imminent threat?
• 2. Why think Iraq lacks the characteristics that
  make something an imminent threat?

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In Making Your Own Judgments

• When inclined to make a claim about a particular
  object of the form, X is F, ask yourself what
  F-ness is, and whether X really does possess the
  characteristics that make something F.
• Then, spell out your judgment explicitly. "X is
  F. Being an F is being an A, B, and C. X is an A,
  B, and C. So, X is F."

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In Making Your Own Judgments

• When inclined to make a claim about a particular
  object of the form, X is F, ask yourself what
  F-ness is, and whether X really does possess the
  characteristics that make something F.
• Then, spell out your judgment explicitly. "X is
  F. Being an F is being an A, B, and C. X is an A,
  B, and C. So, X is F."
• Shakespeare's Hamlet is a psychopath.
• 1. What is a psychopath? I.e., what is the form
  of being a psychopath?
• 2. Why think Hamlet has the characteristics that
  constitute the form of being a psychopath?