PENGENALAN KPD PETA: GEOLOGI STRUKTUR DAN PENGGUNAAN PETA

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PENGENALAN KPD PETAGEOLOGI STRUKTUR DAN
PENGGUNAAN PETA

• SGBS 1202
• Mustaffa Kamal Shuib
• Prof. Madya
• Jabatan Geologi
• Tel [phone]
• Email mustaffk_at_um.edu.my
• 13/7/2007

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• Apakah Peta?
• Media Peta,
• Jenis Peta
• Konsep Peta,
• Unsur-unsur Peta

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Apakah peta?
Many different people use many different types
of maps for many different purposes
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Apakah peta?

• Model yang mewakili taburan benua dan lautan
  diatas Bumi ini.
• Suatu unjuran grafik permukaan Bumi ini yang
  menunjukkan taburan semua unsur-unsur yang
  terdapat,
• termasuk unsur semula jadi dan binaan manusia.

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Kegunaan peta
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Kegunaan peta
Mencari tempat

• Lets say you are asked to find the nearest
  school from your house. You could walk aimlessly
  from your house and hope you find a school.
• However, if you were thinking, you would use a
  local map to help locate the nearest high school.
  
• The scale on the map can help you determine the
  distance and
• the legend reveals what map symbol is a school.
• The direction in which you should walk can also
  be determined.
• However, you may need a compass to walk in the
  direction.

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Kegunaan peta
Mencari tempat

• Mencari kedudukan sesuatu fitur

Menentukan fitur yang terdapat pada sesuatu
kawasan
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Jenis-jenis peta
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Jenis-jenis peta

• Political maps
• Menentukan fitur-fitur yang terdapat pada sesuatu
  tempat
• do not show physical features. Instead, they
  indicate state and national boundaries and
  capital and major cities. A capital city is
  usually marked with a star within a circle.
• Road maps
• show majorsome minor highwaysand roads,
  airports, railroad tracks, cities and other
  points of interest in an area. People use road
  maps to plan trips and for driving directions.
• Topographic maps
• include contour lines to show the shape and
  elevation of an area. Lines that are close
  together indicate steep terrain, and lines that
  are far apart indicate flat terrain.

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• Climate maps
• give general information about the climate and
  precipitation (rain and snow) of a region.
  Cartographers, or mapmakers, use colors to show
  different climate or precipitation zones.
• Economic or resource maps
• feature the type of natural resources or economic
  activity that dominates an area. Cartographers
  use symbols to show the locations of natural
  resources or economic activities.
• Physical maps
• illustrate the physical features of an area, such
  as the mountains, rivers and lakes. The water is
  usually shown in blue. Colors are used to show
  reliefdifferences in land elevations. Green is
  typically used at lower elevations, and orange or
  brown indicate higher elevations.

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Climate map
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Road map
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Topographic map
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Peta Fizikal
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Meteorological map
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Political map
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TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

• Topographic maps show a 3 dimensional world in 2
  dimensions by using contour lines.
• Many people have trouble reading these maps,
  because they have mountains and valleys are
  represented with concentric circles and lines.
• Many hikers use topographic maps, especially in
  areas where there are no roads with signs.
• Geologists depend on topographic maps to record
  the types of rocks.
• Engineers use topographic maps when they are
  planning roads, buildings, or other humanmade
  structures. Imagine designing a city without
  considering where hills and valleys are located!

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GEOLOGIC MAPS

• A geologic map is a map of the different types of
  rocks that are on the surface of the Earth. By
  mapping different rock types, geologists can
  determine the relationships between different
  rock formations which can then be used to find
  mineral resources, oil, and gravel deposits.

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Media Peta

• 1) Kertas paper form that had been used for
  centuries,
• 2) Digital/komputer in the much more recent
  digital form on a computer.
• Kedua-dua media ada kebaikan dan keburukan
• a) keperluan pengguna,
• b) masalah yang ingin diselesaikan
• c) jenis data mentah yang sedia ada.

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Media Peta Kertas

• Using paper topographic maps, nautical charts,
  tourist maps, and bus route maps.

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Media Peta Kertas

• Paper maps have been used for centuries.
• Paper maps are relatively inexpensive - MURAH
• and so are available to most people. SEMUA
  ORANG BOLEH GUNA
• They are portable and compact, they just fold up
  and go in your pack. MUDAH DIBAWAKITA PERNAH
  GUNAKAN, either a bus route map, a road map,
  or a map in your school atlas that you needed to
  look at for course-work.
• Paper maps are familiar to people,

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keburukkan

• Tidak boleh dikemaskini dengan senang. Because of
  their permanent format when new updated
  information such as newly built roads becomes
  available to cartographers, whole new maps must
  be drawn instead of just updating one part of the
  map, in this case the roads.
• Mudah rosak. If you take your map on a camping
  trip for instance, it could get wet or torn
  unless you have protected it with some form of
  lamination.
• Melibatkan satu tema sahaja, paper maps are
  usually based on only one theme, such as road
  maps, land use maps, or geological maps.

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Media Peta Digital

• Digital maps are a product of the last century's
  massive increase in technology development.
• Mudah dikemaskini, diubah dan dimanupulasikan.
• With a click of a mouse button, you can add
  layers to your land use map to find a) major
  highways, b) streams and rivers, c) to find power
  lines.

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• With a digital map, a user can find the area of a
  particular feature like a lake or a forest, the
  length of a road or water course, or find out how
  many schools are within a school board district.
• Digital maps can easily be personalized to a
  specific user's needs and purpose.
• Digital maps can also be easily kept up-to-date.

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KEBURUKKAN

• Maps and mapping on computers can be very
  expensive. MAHAL
• Even just to purchase the data and information
  that goes into digital maps can be very
  expensive.
• You also have to have a computer, and have
  software that can process the map data.
• Tak mudah dibawa bersama. Digital maps are not
  as portable as paper maps, although hand held
  Global Positioning Systems are available.
• Tak semua orang tahu cara menggunanyaOne of the
  biggest disadvantages of digital maps is that not
  everyone understands how to use digital mapping
  technology.

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AMALI SGBS 1202
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Tajuk atau tempat
tentuarah
Sistem lokasi
legend
sekil
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Konsep Peta

• Maps communicate information,
• but how do you make sense of all the different
  sources of information on a map?
• How do you relate what you see on the map to what
  you see in real life?
• Learn the language of maps!
• Kita akan bincang konsepSekil/skala, Jarak,
  Arah, Sudut selisihan, dan sistem lokasi
• that will enable you to understand how to
  interpret what maps are saying.

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Sekil/skala

• There are four ways of indicating scale

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• Sekil peta ialah satu nisbah yang mengaitkan
  jarak atas peta dengan jarak sebenar atas
  permukaan Bumi
• One common scale is 150,000,
• this means that one unit on the map (centimetre,
  inch, shoe length, pinkie fingernail,
  whatever...) is equivalent to 50,000 of those
  units (centimetre, inch, shoe length, pinkie
  fingernail, whatever...)
• in the real world. It does not matter what units
  you use to take a measurement from the map, the
  real world the equivalent distance will be 50,000
  times the map distance on a standard topographic
  map.

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• Here is an example if you measure a distance on
  a 150,000 scale map, to be two centimetres, the
  corresponding actual distance is 100,000
  centimetres.
• But this is not a very useful way to report
  distance. Very few people can understand how far
  100,000 centimetres is so it is much more useful
  to covert 100,000 centimetres into metres or
  kilometres.

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• When reporting a scale, the units of distance
  must be specified if they are not the same
  between the map and the real world. What would
  happen if the units of distance were the same?
  For exampleIf 1 centimetre on the map
  represents 500 metres on the ground, the scale is
  1 centimetre to 500 metres or 1/50,000. This is
  also called a representative fraction

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Jarak

• Think of some ways that distance could be
  measured on a map.
• How about a ruler?
• If it's a straight line distance that you are
  measuring, sometimes a regular old ruler would
  work fine!
• Just measure from Point A to Point B to find the
  distance between them.

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• Rulers are great for straight line distances, or
  measuring distance "as the crow flies", but would
  a ruler be a good choice to measure the length of
  a river or stream?
• What if you are measuring a distance along roads
  from one house to another?
• How would you measure curved lines with a
  straight ruler?
• One way is to divide the line into straight line
  segments and to then measure in between them.

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• Another way to measure a curved distance is to
  use a piece of string.
• Lay a length of string on a map sheet, putting
  one end of the string at the point that you want
  to measure from.
• Shape and curve the string along the route that
  you want to measure, such as a river or stream.
• When you get to the point that you want to
  measure to, mark the point on the string with a
  marker.
• Now you can remove the string from the paper,
  stretch it out straight and measure its length

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tentuarah

•  North is shown on the bottom of a topographic
  map by three arrows whose tips are marked MN, ,
  GN.
• These refer to Magnetic North, True North, and
  Grid North, respectively.

Utara benar
Utara Magnet
Utara Grid
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• Utara benar/True North is toward the top of the
  map it is defined by the meridians of longitude.
  
• Utara magnet / Magnetic North is the direction
  toward which a compass needle points within the
  map area.
• The angle between Magnetic North and True North
  is known as magnetic declination.- Sudut selisih
  magnet
• Because the magnetic pole shifts westward with
  time, the declination needs to be monitored and
  updated for accurate navigation.

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• Utara Grid/Grid North shows the difference
  between the rectangular grid on the map and True
  North.
• This difference happens because a map is a flat
  illustration of the Earth's curved surface. .

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• True North is different from Magnetic North
  because the Earth's geographic North Pole and its
  magnetic North Pole are not located at the same
  place.
• The angle between them (magnetic declination)
  changes as you move to different places on the
  globe.
• For compass bearings to be the same as bearings
  measured from a map, the compass must be set to
  make up for magnetic declination.
• If you didn't, your map and compass bearings
  would be measured from different 0 (north)
  lines. What then? You'd be lost! A True North map
  bearing can be converted to a Magnetic North
  compass bearing, or the other way around, by
  either adding or subtracting the value of the
  magnetic declination the value of True North

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• Directions are shown in degrees as either
  bearings or azimuths.
• A bearing measures the degrees of an angle, east
  or west, from north or south from zero to a
  maximum of 180 degrees.
• Azimuths are similar to bearings, but degrees are
  counted clockwise for 360 degrees, beginning and
  ending at north.

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Sistem Grid

• A grid system is a set of lines that cross each
  other at right angles on a map.
• Grid systems allow the map user to locate or
  report on a specific point on the map.
• For example, longitude and latitude lines on a
  Mercator-projection map form a rectangular grid
  system that can be used to identify locations.
• Another grid system that is widely used in
  mapping and orienteering is the Universal
  Transverse Mercator or UTM Grid system. Why do
  you think the word Mercator is used in the name
  of the system?
• The Military Grid Reference System is a military
  version of the civilian-use UTM system.

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Universal Transverse Mercator or UTM Grid

• An easier-to-use grid system for specifying a
  point on a topographic map is the Universal
  Transverse Mercator or UTM Grid. This grid system
  subdivides the map region into one kilometre
  squares. Each marked UTM line on the map is
  exactly 1000 metres (1 kilometre) to distance
  from a reference point. Points that fall between
  the marked UTM grid lines can be accurately
  located by using the 1000 metre scale bar found
  at the bottom of the map.

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Military Grid Reference System

• The military grid reference system is very
  similar to the civilian UTM system, but avoids
  UTM's cumbersome long strings of numbers by using
  a rectangular grid with, on 1500,000 scale and
  larger maps, two digit numbered rows and columns.
  Military grid references are very similar to the
  mathematical Cartesian (x,y) system. Military
  grid coordinates first give eastings on the x
  axis, and then northings, on the y axis.

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Reading Military Grid Reference Coordinates

• In this example, the designation of the square
  containing the school would be 67E42N. This is
  called a four-figure grid reference.

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• In order to give a more precise military grid
  reference, you must imagine the square divided
  into ten sections by ten sections.
• The grid reference will then be an estimate of
  that internal ten by ten division of a grid
  square.
• We can estimate that the school is six tenths of
  the way "east" from the western boundary of the
  grid square, line 67. Horizontally, we can
  estimate also that the school is approximately
  five tenths of the way up from the southern
  boundary of the grid square, line 42. We can then
  give a six-figure grid reference for the school
  of 676E425N.

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• We can then give a six-figure grid reference for
  the school of 676E425N.

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• READING A GLOBE We can identify locations as
  precise points on the Earth's surface by using a
  grid system of latitude and longitude. The use of
  giving a north and south direction (latitude) and
  an east and west direction (longitude) is used
  through the world. This system aids us in
  measuring distances and finding directions
  between and among places on the Earth's surface.
  The starting point is the prime meridian, with
  represents 0º longitude. The exact opposite
  position at 180º is called the International Date
  Line, which is where the date actually changes.
  So if you are going from Monday in California,
  and cross the International Date Line going to
  Japan. It would be Tuesday! You have to start the
  day somewhere.

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Latitude and Longitude

• The first important question a map-user must
  answer is "What part of the Earth's surface is
  being shown?" In order to answer this question, a
  map-user must be able to say exactly where a
  location is on the surface of the Earth. The
  location of points or areas on the surface of the
  Earth can be shown by latitude and longitude.
•   Lines of Latitude and Lines of Longitude

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• Lines of latitude circle the Earth in
  east-west-parallels which are at right angles to
  the Earth's axis.
• The value of lines of latitude increases in
  towards North or South from the zero degree line
  around the middle of the Earth.
• What is another name for that zero degree line of
  latitude?
• Lines of latitude increase from the equator at 0
  to the North or South pole at 90 degrees.

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• Lines of longitude circle the Earth from North
  Pole to South Pole parallel to the Earth's axis.
• Lines of longitude increase in value, east or
  west, away from the zero degree line of longitude
  called the Prime Meridian.
• Because there is no natural vertical 'middle' to
  the Earth, the Prime Meridian is defined as the
  North to South circle that passes through the
  town of Greenwich, England
• (the reason for this is historical Greenwich was
  the site of the British Royal Observatory and of
  the telescope used to make the astronomical
  observation on which the longitude system was
  originally based).

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• Both latitude and longitude lines represent
  divisions of a circle and are measured, like
  circles, in degrees, but also minutes, and
  seconds.
• There are 60 minutes in a degree, and 60 seconds
  in a minute.
• Why do minutes and seconds represent divisions of
  a degree?

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Reading Latitude and Longitude on a Topographic
Map

• On topographic maps, the latitude and longitude
  coordinates are given at each corner of the map,
  and along the sides of the map in the margins..

• Notice that the longitude numbers increase from
  right to left and that the latitude numbers
  increase from bottom to top.
• Look at a map of the world and find the Prime
  Meridian and the equator.

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• What do you notice about MALAYSIA?
• MALAYSIA is EAST of the Prime Meridian and north
  of the equator. Because of this, all longitude
  coordinates are EAST (E), and all latitude
  coordinates are NORTH (North).

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• The latitude and longitude grid is very useful
  for locating a map on the globe.

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Unsur-unsur Peta

• Elements of a map

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• The elements of a map are the parts that almost
  all maps have in order to convey information to
  the user. What do the "mess of numbers and
  symbols" on map sheets mean? A map, as you
  probably realize by now, is a scaled,
  two-dimensional (that is flat) representation of
  some part of the Earth's curved surface.
• Maps are designed to give the map user an
  accurate picture of the real world that, in most
  cases, emphasizes certain information of
  interest.

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However, no matter what features that are
displayed on a map, to use a map to its fullest
all users need to be able to answer the following
questions about the map.

• 1. What location on the Earth's surface is
  represented on the map? (Latitude and Longitude)
• 2. How can a point on the map be specified? (Grid
  Systems)
• 3. How can a compass direction from one point to
  another be specified? (Bearing)
• 4. How are distances estimated from the map?
  (Scale)
• 5. What do colours, symbols, and other
  information on the map mean?

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• In this section, you will learn what information
  different map elements provide, and how to
  interpret them.
• For instance what is the legend, and where does
  it go?
• What information does a compass rose provide?
• What does colour mean on a map?
• What is so important about titles and source
  credits?

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Legends Symbols

• A legend is a part of a map that interprets the
  meaning of point, line, and area symbols on a
  map. Symbols represent real world land features
  on a map. Symbols can be divided into three
  groups point, line, and polygon (or area)
  symbols. Point symbols are
• buildings
• wells
• radio towers

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• Line symbols are
• roads
• rivers
• railroad tracks
• power lines
• Polygon or area symbols are
• water bodies
• swamps
• deserts
• forested area
• glaciers

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Colour

• Using colours on maps provides very helpful
  visual cues to the map user who is interpreting
  the map. There are general cartographic, or
  map-making, rules which cartographers, or
  map-makers have to use. On most modern
  topographic maps, the eight basic colours are
• White
• Green
• Blue
• Red
• Black
• Pink
• Brown
• Purple

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Compass Rose, Azimuth, and Quadrants

•  Compass Rose A compass rose is the familiar
  north, east, south, west cross-symbol used to
  show direction on a map. There are two methods of
  selecting a bearing, and they depend on which
  style of compass rose is used. The azimuth method
  is based on a 360 circle. A bearing is reported
  as an angle between the bearing line and 0,
  measured clockwise around the compass rose.

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• Measuring Azimuth
• The quadrant method is based on a division of the
  compass rose into four quadrants. Bearings are
  read as the angle between north or south and the
  bearing line in either the east or west
  direction. For example, in the image, a bearing
  line midway through the NW quadrant of the
  compass rose can be read as 315 (start at north,
  turn 315 - azimuth method) or as N 45 W
  (start at north, turn 45 to the west - quadrant
  method.)

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• Normally, the quadrant method of reporting
  bearings is easiest to use. One advantage is in
  converting from a bearing to its mirrored bearing
  in the opposite direction. For example, if a
  bearing from point A to point B is given as N 55
  W, the reverse bearing from B back to A is S 55
  E one has only to reverse the compass directions
  while keeping the same angle. Azimuths are useful
  when you need to process them using a computer
  because each bearing can be represented by a
  single number.

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Title, Source Credit

• Why do you think that map titles would be
  important? What kind of information would you
  expect to find in a map title? Map titles are
  important because they are generally the first
  piece of information that the reader can see on
  the map. They serve the very important function
  of letting the map user know what area the map
  represents. If the map is showing a general area,
  the location in the title of the map generally
  reflects the most prominent feature shown in the
  map such as a mountain range, or a city or town.

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• Maps should also credit the source of the data
  that the map was produced from. This should name
  the source and date the year of the data. Why
  would telling people the source of the data be
  important? It is important because it gives the
  map and the data it was made from, credibility or
  trustworthiness that the map was based oncorrect
  information. Map-user's will know, or at least be
  able to check, that the data that the
  cartographer, or mapmaker, used was gathered and
  reported correctly.

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• GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS - Introduction On
  a rainy weekend during the school year, you
  decide to visit the science museum that has just
  opened near your home. When you arrive, you
  discover that it is huge. There are more
  interesting things to see than you can possibly
  examine in an afternoon. How do you decide what
  to see? How do you find out where to go?
• Luckily, inside the entrance of the museum, you
  see a row of computer stations. At each station,
  a screen displays a map of the museum. As you
  move the computers mouse over the map, a window
  appears telling you what is displayed in each
  area. You want to see the museums exhibit on
  gemstones. You notice that the computer screen
  has a search command. You enter the word
  "gemstones". The screen responds by highlighting
  the room on the map where gemstones are
  displayed. It also tells you how to get there
  from the museum entrance, as well as what
  gemstones are currently on display.

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• What is a Geographic Information System?  The
  program you used at the museum is an example of a
  geographic information system, or GIS. A GIS is a
  type of computer software. The basis for this
  software is a computerized map. Like a regular
  paper map, a GIS map shows where things are
  located. A GIS, however, is much more than a map.
  It also contains a database of information about
  the things on the map, such as what was displayed
  in each room of the museum. In addition, the GIS
  contains software that analyzes the database and
  map information to find connections between them.
  Searching for gemstone displays in the museum is
  an example of a GIS analysis. To answer your
  question, the software examined the database and
  map, and gave you the location of the gemstone
  exhibit. There is no fixed information to go with
  the map in a GIS. Some GIS show where power lines
  run, others show the roads, while others show
  schools.

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• GIS GIS is important because of its ability to
  analyze information. Any information which is
  related to maps can be analyzed with a GIS. The
  types of maps and data in a GIS are also very
  flexible. A GIS map can cover very small to very
  large areas. A small GIS map might just show a
  few blocks in a city. It might show details of
  where utilities such as telephones lines, sewers,
  and cables are located. A large GIS map could
  cover the entire Earth. It might show seasonal
  changes in plant growth. The information that a
  GIS map shows can be about anything.
• A geographic information system (or GIS) is a way
  of representing information about the world in a
  computer in the same way a map shows the world on
  paper.