Chapter Two: Research Ideas and Hypotheses

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Chapter Two Research Ideas and Hypotheses

• Research Ideas
• Developing a Research Question
• Surveying the Literature
• Formulating the Research Hypothesis
• Characteristics of a Research Hypothesis

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Study Focus for Exam One

• Purchase 3 scantron 886 forms
• Parts of experiment
• Research designs, control, types
• Ethical principles, the IRB, consent, debriefing
• Library research
• Purpose of this course

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• Know
• participant reactivity replication
• demand characteristics library resources
• validity debriefing session
• reliability descriptive studies
• population types of studies
• sample interobserver reliability
• single-blind study correlation
• double-blind study extraneous variable
• dependent variable scholarly data base
• independent variable
• Operational definitions

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• Characteristics of good research hypotheses
• Benefits of studying research methodology
• Ethical issues
• Know the abbreviations APA, IRB, MFT, LCSW
• Some experiments will be described and you will
  identify the various elements using scientific
  terminology such as control variable, extraneous
  variable, independent, dependent, control group,
  experimental group.

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Good Research Ideas

• The closer our project comes to approximating
  reality, the greater the likelihood of
  successfully unlocking some of the secrets of
  nature. Smith/Davis

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Why examine past research?

• Learn what is already known
• Learn about various variables that have been
  evaluated
• Learn what theories have been proposed
• Discover a question you want to investigate
• Decide on replication, replication with
  extension, or original research

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Developing a research question

• Survey the research literature
• Read the actual article, not just the abstract
• What do you really want to know?
• Is your interest relevant to the improvement of
  the quality of life for human beings? I.e. what
  are the implications of the research findings if
  the hypothesis is or is not confirmed?

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Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

• Principle of falsifiability denial of the
  hypothesis means your hypothesis is justifiably
  rejected
• Measurable
• Includes clear statements of the independent and
  dependent variables
• Includes a clear statement of the relationship
  between the IV and DV

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Directional versus Non-directional research
hypotheses

• Directional hypothesis prediction of the
  specific outcome of an experiment
• It was expected that students who studied three
  hours outside class for every hour in class would
  out-perform students who studied two or less
  hours outside class for every hour in class.

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Non-directional hypothesis

• A specific prediction concerning the outcome of
  an experiment is not made
• Scores on the Need for Achievement Scale (N-Ach)
  for participants who exercised 30 minutes per day
  for two weeks on stair climbers were expected to
  be different from scores on the N-Ach scale for
  participants who did not exercise.

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Null Hypothesis

• Prediction of no difference
• It was expected that no difference in scores on
  the Need for Achievement Scale would occur
  between participants who did or did not exercise
  30 minutes per day for two weeks on stair
  climbers.

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Chapter 3 Ethics

• APA Principles for Ethical Research
• Institutional Review Board
• Researchers Ethical Obligations After Completion
  of Research

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APA Ethical Principles

• Institutional Approval The IRB
• Informed Consent - Must be signed, complete
  description of procedures, risks, benefits,
  contribution
• Deception not allowed at our level
• Debriefing explain the nature and purpose of
  the study to participants

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Ethics Post Research

• This is paramount to your academic and
  professional success!
• No plagiarism, ever, period.
• Never fabricate your data, ever.
• Never lie with statistics.
• Always cite references carefully. Consult the
  manual. Be thorough.

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Why would you be ethical?

• Personal integrity
• Peer respect
• Professors respect
• Create opportunities
• Avoid serious consequences

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Chapter Four Descriptive, Qualitative and
Correlational Methods

• Descriptive Methods no independent variable is
  manipulated
• Case study observation of a single person
• Naturalistic observation observing behavior
  without interfering
• Participant observation observing while being a
  part of the interactions in a particular group
• Ethnography participant ob. of entire culture
• Clinical perspective focus on correcting a
  behavioral problem

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Validity

• The extent to which you are truly measuring what
  you intend to measure in a study
• Ex. I.Q. studies
• Ex. Uncontrolled variables mask the true
  relationship between variables

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Reliability

• The extent to which the results of an experiment
  can be repeated, verifying the validity of the
  study

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Challenges to validity and reliability

• Reactivity participants behave differently when
  aware of being observed, also known as the
  Hawthorne effect.
• Situation sampling observing the same behavior
  in different situations
• Interobserver reliability the extent to which
  different observers agree

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Qualitative Research

• Research conducted in a natural setting that
  seeks to understand a complex behavior by
  developing a complete narrative description or
  that behavior.
• Ex. Sex workers in London

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Qualitative Research

• Examples
• Peoples psychological reactions to the hurricane
• Interviews with participants after a drug and
  alcohol treatment program
• Studies of survivors of Columbine or 911

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Qualitative Research Grounded Theory

• Aimed at building theories through interviews and
  observations of the real world.
• Called grounded theory because theories
  developed are grounded in reality
• Like detective work, develop an explanation of
  behavior through clues
• Coding is the primary technique

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Grounded Theory Coding

• Open coding examination, comparison,
  conceptualization, categorization of data
• Axial coding rearranging open coded data in new
  categories to discover new relationships between
  variables to create new concepts
• Selective coding focus on core category of data
  and rearranging other categories around this
  focus
• This coding leads to understanding of the process
  (sequence) and transactional systems

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Transactional Systems

• An analysis of how actions and interactions
  relate to their conditions and consequences.

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Correlational Research

• Determination of the relationship between two
  variables
• Positive correlation as scores of one variable
  increase, scores on a second variable also
  increase ex. Study hours and grades
• Negative correlation scores on one v. go up
  while the other v. go down ex. Self-esteem goes
  up, fear of public speaking goes down
• Zero correlation no relationship between the
  variables

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Quality work

• is never an accident.

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Chapter Four Nonexperimental Methods II

• Ex-post facto studies
• Surveys and Questionnaires
• Sampling
• Basic Research Strategies

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Ex post facto study

• The variable(s) to be studied are selected after
  they have occurred.
• after the fact means we study variables that
  have already expressed their effect.
• Hypothesis Employees experience more stress in
  non-profit than in for profit organizations. Why
  is this ex post facto?
• Because she did not manipulate gender or where
  they worked

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Surveys and Questionnaires

• Descriptive Survey seeks to determine the
  percentage of the population that has a certain
  characteristic, holds a certain opinion or does a
  behavior
• Pilot testing REALLY important
• Demographic data biographic items

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Sampling Techniques

• Population the complete set of individuals or
  events you wish to describe or make inferences
  about
• Sample a portion of the population
• Random sample every member of the population has
  an EQUAL CHANCE of being chosen for the sample

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Random Sampling

• Without replacement once chosen the participant
  or event cannot be sent back to the population
  for possible inclusion in the next sample
• With replacement can be re-selected
• Stratified random sampling drawing a sample from
  a sub-population, text example college freshmen,
  seniors, sample from each strata

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Basic Research Strategies

• Single-strata data comes from one strata, i.e.
  freshmen only
• Cross-sectional comparison of two or more groups
  at the same time, i.e. 5,6,7 and 8 year olds
• Longitudinal data from the same group over time,
  i.e. start at 5 end at 8
• Cohort a group born at the same time

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Your survey research

• Controversial topic
• Neutral target question
• 9 other questions, balanced pro, con, neutral
  framing, show me with C, N, and P next to each
  question
• Mutually exclusive, exhaustive, forced choice,
  randomly placed
• 5 demographic items related to topic

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Your survey continued

• Obtain at least 20 people call them
  participants, respondents, or another descriptive
  term such as students
• Intro to survey and instructions are all in
  written form
• Purpose
• Sponsorship
• Time involved
• Confidentiality

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Defining your topic

• Provide respondents with a definition of the
  topic you are studying
• Abortion the termination of pregnancy at the
  ___trimester of gestation
• Gun control restrictions on the ownership of
  hand guns and other guns
• Stem cell research the use of fetal cells from
  abortions to cure diseases

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Obtaining Respondents

• Maximize your time
• Multiply the time per person by the number of
  participants you intent to include
• Obtain data from groups at once in classes for
  example
• Instructions are all in written form for
  uniformity and prevention of bias

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Pilot test your survey!

• In class feedback
• Bias? Attitude first and not demographic?
• Clarity and placement of target? Biographic
  last, not attitude?
• Demographics sensible?
• Instructions clear?
• Ethical?
• Mutually exclusive and exhaustive options?
• Obtain at least 5 others feedback

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Hypotheses

• It was expected that respondents who were female
  would be more supportive of _________than males.
• It was expected that participants who were
  parents would be expected to be more supportive
  of ____than respondents who were not parents.
• Include 5 hypotheses

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Rationale

• For each hypothesis state why you expect this
  result
• Based on prior research
• Based on something else?
• Note be prepared to elaborate or offer a
  different explanation in discussion

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Abstract

• Intro to study
• Hypotheses
• Results
• Implications
• 120 words maximum
• No indentation

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Introduction

• Obtain 3 quality references
• Try to justify your hypotheses with prior
  research
• Start with the broad controversy
• Narrow to your specific investigation

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Abstract Statement of Hypotheses

• It was expected that males, those who were
  parents, respondents whose income was less than
  30,000, Hispanics and those who had attended
  schools with uniforms would be more likely to
  favor school uniforms than females, non-parents,
  those with incomes over 30,000, non-Hispanics
  and respondents who did not wear school uniforms.

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Results

• Data was analyzed in percentages and a 20
  difference in the data was considered
  significant.
• Separate surveys by demographics one at a time.
  Obtain the for it from each category and
  conclude acceptance or rejection of hypotheses.

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Results

• Report
• The hypothesis
• The data
• Accept, confirm, support or reject, deny, not
  support each hypothesis
• Other interesting data

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Discussion

• Discuss each hypothesis in a separate paragraph
• Repeat the result without data
• What does each result mean? Why did it turn out
  this way?
• Suggest modifications in the study
• Suggest further research

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Consent, Debriefing, Author note

• Include all three
• Author note includes contact information for
  readers to discuss your study with you or obtain
  a copy of it

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Tips for Success

• Get relevant sources
• Pilot test for sure!
• Spend time learning what your results mean
• Submit your paper to Joe or Heather via e-mail or
  at the study session on Wednesdays at 330.
• Use the Writing Center in FH 224
• Do not say almost significant

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Tips continued

• Accept your results
• Prepare in advance to explain why you obtained
  these results when they do or do not confirm your
  hypotheses
• Prepare in advance to explain the implications of
  your study why does knowing this matter? To whom?

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Your experiment

• Be planning your experiment
• At least two groups
• One I.V. that is manipulated!!!!!
• What groups do you have access to? Your parents,
  friends groups? Work?
• What are your interests, hobbies, curiosities?

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Being Efficient

• Participant considerations
• Availability
• Finances
• Time
• Special permissions take time
• Get the proposal to me as soon as you can
• Start the paper right away