Research Methods I

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Research Methods I

• Role of Theory in Research

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Theory

• Definitions I found
• A system of interconnected abstractions or ideas
  that condenses and organizes knowledge about the
  world.
• In a general sense, any more or less formalized
  conceptualization of the relationship between
  variables. Any generalized explanatory principle.
  
• An always tentative explanation of phenomena that
  we observe never proven representative of the
  most logical explanation based on currently
  available evidence becomes stronger as more
  supporting evidence is gathered provides a
  context for predictions.

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Misconceptions about theory

• A tentative theory about the natural world a
  concept that is not yet verified but that if true
  would explain certain facts or phenomena "a
  scientific hypothesis that survives experimental
  testing becomes a scientific theory
• A theory is more than just an idea.
• All theories are not equal.
• Examples of theories
• Theory of gravity
• Theory that the earth revolves around the sun
• Theory of evolution
• Frustration-aggression theory

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Hypothesis vs. theory

• Hypothesis is an educated guess. A prediction
  about the relationship between two or more
  variables.
• A prediction as to what you expect to find.
• Hypotheses are more specific than theories.
• Theories have many different hypotheses.
• Results of a single research study will not prove
  or disprove a theory. 
• If the hypotheses offered by the theory are
  confirmed, the theory is supported (not proved).
• If lots of studies reveal that many of the
  hypotheses generated by the theory are false, the
  theory must be reevaluated.

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What makes a good theory?

• 1. Falsifiability - The theory must make
  sufficiently precise predictions that we can at
  least imagine evidence that would contradict the
  theory.
• Examples Frustration-aggression theory
• Freuds theory of repression.
• Theory of psychic ability
• If something is not falsifiable, it doesnt mean
  it is wrong, simply that it has no place in
  science.

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• 2. Parsimony simplicity
• The best theory is the one that makes the fewest
  number of assumptions
• All things being equal, the simplest theory is
  the best theory.
• Also known as Ockhams razor
• The simplest of two or more competing theories is
  preferable and the unknown should first be
  explained in terms of the known
• E.g., theories of intelligence
• Theories of UFOs
• Magic acts
• Warning simple theories are not always right.

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• 3. Generativity - A good theory doesnt just
  explain results that have been found, but it also
  generates predictions that can be tested
• Research is promoted by the offering of a good
  theory.
• E.g., frustration-aggression little evidence
  for the theory initially, but it generated a lot.

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• 4. Precision the theory makes precise
  predictions.
• Ambiguity is bad for a theory.
• Predictions must have consistency there cannot
  be internal contradictions.
• 5. Good track record the theory holds up to
  research results. Studies have tested the
  hypotheses and have provided support.

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The use of theory

• Theory guides research
• Organizes ideas
• All research has a purpose
• Paradigms
• Sociology, history, and political science,
  especially.
• A model or framework for observation and
  understanding, which shapes both what we see and
  how we understand it.
• E.g., conflict theory, feminist theory

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The Aspects of Theory

• Theories can be categorized by
• The direction of reasoning
• The level of explanation

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Direction of theorizing

• Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning reasoning from the general
  to the particular
• Process of concluding that something must be true
  because it is a special case of a general
  principle that is known to be true
• All children like ice-cream general principle
• Tommy is a child particular case
• Tommy will like ice-cream deduction
• Examples.

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• Inductive reasoning reasoning from the
  particular to the general
• Process of reasoning that a general principle is
  true because the special cases you've seen are
  true
• Example
• Dr. Boughner is strange
• Dr. Boughner lives in Tulsa
• People who live in Tulsa are strange
• More examples
• Creation and use of stereotypes

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• Applying these types of reasoning to theory
  construction.
• Deductive approach build a theory by starting
  with an abstract, logical idea. Based on the
  theory, perform research to test the theory.
• Often starts with common sense, personal
  experience
• Theories change with testing

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• Inductive approach build a theory by first
  looking at the results of many research projects
  and offering a theory that can be used to explain
  the data.
• Creating a theory in order to explain data.

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• Examples
• Frustration-aggression theory very little
  evidence existed in 1939. Deductive reasoning.
• Thorndikes law of effect
• any behavior that is followed by favorable
  consequences will be more likely to occur in the
  future, and behavior that is followed by aversive
  consequences will be less likely to occur.
• Thorndike built the law after years of research.
  Inductive reasoning.

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• Grounded theory
• Full use of induction
• Typically, both induction and deduction are used
  by scientists.
• Good theories probably use a little of both.

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Warning about induction

• Gould and Lewontin (1979) - The spandrels of San
  Marco and the Panglossian paradigm
• Elephants trunk, giraffes neck
• Stay away from just-so stories. Just because it
  fits the data does not mean it is right.
• The main problem with just-so stories lack of
  falsifiability.

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Level of explanation

• Levels of explanation are different throughout
  science
• E.g., chemistry vs. physics vs. psychology vs.
  sociology
• Theory can be used at various levels of
  explanation.
• In the social sciences, three levels of
  explanation for theory.

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• Micro-level theory seeks to explain behavior at
  the level of the individual or family environment
  
• Most of psychology is at the micro level
• Examples
• Frustration-aggression hypothesis
• Sternbergs theory of love

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• Macro-level theory seeks to explain behavior at
  the level of large groups of people.
• Study things like ethnicity, class, or gender
• Example
• Conflict theory the society or organization
  functions so that each individual participant and
  its groups struggle to maximize their benefits,
  which inevitably contributes to social change
  such as changes in politics and revolutions.
• Evolution
• Much of sociology is at the macro level
• The primary difference between psychology and
  sociology is the level of explanation.

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• Meso-level theory seeks to explain the
  interactions of micro-level organisms.
• Somewhat between micro and macro.
• Looks at things like social institutions,
  organizations, or communities. Basically small
  groups.
• Ex. What role should Psychology Club serve at
  RSU?
• Much of communications functions at the
  meso-level, though also micro and macro.
• Social psychology also may function at the
  meso-level.

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• Many times the same topic can be studied by all 3
  levels of theory.
• E.g., Tax cuts