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Personality

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Title: Personality


1
  • Lecture 3.
  • Personality
  • and
  • intelligence assessment

2
Reference
  • Murphy, K. R. Davidshofer, C. O. (1998).
    Psychological testing. Principles and
    applications International Edition (6/e). Upper
    Saddle River, N.J. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
    (chapters 15 17).

3
Types of tests
  • Criterion the form of recording the examinees
    behaviour (Cattell)
  • Tests of performance
  • Behavior observations
  • Self-report

4
Tests of Performance Referred to as "Tests of
Maximal Performance" Examinees are given a
well-defined task that they try to perform
successfully. Examinee must know what he/she
must do in response to the task. The subject
exerts maximal effort to succeed. Performance
tests are designed to uncover what an individual
can do, given the specific test conditions.
Examples - Intelligence Tests, language
proficiency - Biology test, flight simulator
5
Self Report Instruments
  • - Participant is asked to report his or her
    feelings, attitudes, beliefs, values.
  • When self-report makes sense
  • Self-report relies upon the test takers
    awareness and honesty.
  • It is the best method to measure internal states
    - things only the person themselves can be aware
    of and judge.
  • People are not always good judges of their
    ability
  • Provides an estimate

6
Self Report Instruments
  • Many personality inventories such as the MMPI and
    the 16PF measures are based on self-report.
  • Clinicians include self-report measures as part
    of their initial examinations of presenting
    clients.
  • Self-Report measures are frequently subject to
    self-censorship.
  • People know their responses are being measured
    and wish to be seen in a favorable light.
    (self-serving bias)
  • Items are frequently included to measure the
    extent to which people provide socially desirable
    responses.

7
Behaviour Observation Naturalistic
observation Involves observing the subjects
behaviour and responses in a particular
context. Differs from performance tests in that
the subject does not have a single, well defined
task. The observer can record duration
intensity Examples - Examiner might observe
children interacting or an individual having a
conversation or some other social interaction. -
Companies recruit observers to pose as
salespeople to observe employees behaviors.
Subjects may be unaware they are being tested.

8
History of Test Development circa 1000 BC.
Chinese introduced written tests to help fill
civil service positions Civil Laws, Military
Affairs, Agriculture, Geography 1850 The United
States begins civil service examinations. 1885
Germans tested people for brain damage 1890
James Cattell develops a "mental test" to assess
college students . Test includes measures of
strength, resistance to pain, and reaction time.
1905 Binet-Simon scale of mental development
used to classify mentally retarded children in
France. 1914 World War I produces need in U.S.
to quickly classify incoming recruits. Army Alpha
test and Army Beta test developed. Looked at
psychopathology. 1916 Terman develops Stanford
- Binet test and develops the idea of
Intelligence Quotient
9
History of Test Development 1920 - 1940 factor
analysis, projective tests, and personality
inventories first appear. 1941-1960 vocational
interest measures developed 1961-1980 item
response theory and neuropsychological testing
developed 1980 - Present Wide spread
adaptation of computerized testing. "Smart"
Tests which can give each individual different
test items develop
10
Formal classification of tests
  • One-dimensional tests (one-scale instruments)
    interpretation in terms of trait intensity
    (quantitative diagnosis) or typological
    (qualitative diagnosis).
  • Multi-dimensional tests (multi-scales
    instruments) interpretation in terms of profile
    (model of parallel or hierarchical traits), which
    may lead to the typological or differential
    (within subject) diagnosis.

11
Fig 1. The test scores, assessing the trait
intensity
Average score moderate trait intensity
Low score low trait intensity
High score high trait intensity
12
Fig. 2. One-scale test scores, serving for
typological diagnosis
Test score similar to the upper group
Test score similar to the lower group
13
Typological diagnosis of one-scales scores
  • Typological (one-scale diagnosis) refers to the
    special one-type.
  • Typological diagnosis may refer also to two-types
    classification
  • abnormal (type I) normal abnormal (type
    II, opposite to type I)

14
Fig. 3. Multi-scale test scores, serving for
profile diagnosis (parallel traits)
15
Differential diagnosis of the test profile
  • Comparisons of the scales within one subject,
    like comparison between verbal IQ and nonverbal
    IQ (strictly quantitative assessment).

16
Famous tests
  • 1905 Binet Simon the first intelligence
    scale
  • 1906 Heymans Wiersma the first personality
    assessment (peer-rating)
  • 1917 Woodworth the first personality inventory
    (psychopathology)
  • 1927-1934 Strong/Kuder the first vocational
    inventories

17
The history of well-known tests
  • 1939 Wechsler Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence
    Scale (1997 - WAIS-III)
  • 1943 Hathaway McKinley Minnesota
    Multiphasic Personality Inventory (1989 - MMPI
    2)
  • 1949 Cattell 16 PF (Personality Factors)
  • 1950 - 1990 - Eysenckian inventories
  • 1990 2000 Big Five inventories (Costa
    McCrae).

18
Journals presenting tests (and psychometric
problems)
  • Psychometrika
  • Educational and Psychological Measurement
  • Applied Psychological Measurement
  • Journal of Educational Measurement
  • Journal of Educational Psychology
  • Journal of Applied Psychology
  • Personnel Psychology
  • Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

19
Advantages and disadvantages of the tests
Tests represent the best, fairest, and the
most accurate technology available for making
many important decisions about individuals, but
at a time the psychological testing is highly
controversial (Murphy Davidshofer, 1989, p.
2).
20
Ethical (controversial) aspects of testing
  • The impact of testing on society (artificial or
    real differences, efficiency or equity, helping
    or hurting people)
  • Invasion of privacy (information about private
    life, problem of confidentiality and informed
    consent)
  • The fair use of tests (the equal availability of
    the test material testing disabled examinees).

21
WAIS
22
Wechslers Definition of IQ
  • Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity
    of the individual to act purposefully, to think
    rationally and to deal effectively with his
    environment.
  • Global because it characterizes individuals
    behavior as a whole
  • Aggregate because it is composed of elements or
    abilities that are qualitatively differentiable
  • Wechsler, 1939

23
WAISIII Subtests for IQ Scores
  • Verbal
  • Vocabulary
  • Similarities
  • Arithmetic
  • Digit Span
  • Information
  • Comprehension
  • Performance
  • Picture Completion
  • Digit SymbolCoding
  • Block Design
  • Matrix Reasoning
  • Picture Arrangement

24
Earlier Coordinate Versions
  • 1939 Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WB)
  • 1946 Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale-2nd
    Edition (WB-II)
  • 1949 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
    (WISC) Ages 5-15.11
  • 1955 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
  • 1967 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
    Intelligence (WPPSI) Ages 4-6.5
  • 1981 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised
    (WAIS-R)
  • 1989 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
    Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R) Ages 3-7.3
  • 1991 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children,
    3rd Edition (WISC-III)
  • 1991 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised-as
    a Neuropsychological Instrument (WAIS-R-NI)
  • 1999 WISC-III as a Process Instrument
    (WISC-III-PI)
  • 2003 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children,
    4th Edition (WISC-IV) Ages 6-16.11

25
The Weschler Test (WAIS-IIIR)
26
Applications of WAIS-III
  • Assessment of intellectual ability
  • 1. Used as psychoeducational test for secondary
    abd post-secondary school planning and placement
  • often a core test for assessing learning
    disabilities and for determining exceptionality
    and giftedness
  • Used in school settings to predict future
    academic achivement
  • Used to retest an adolescent if tests were uesd
    for decision of special education placement
  • 2. Useful for the differential diagnosis of
    neurological and psychiatric disorders
  • Range of application age 16-89 (80-89 data drawn
    exclusively from the US sample)

27
WAIS - III
  • The Weschler Test (WAIS-IIIR)
  • 14 subtests
  • 7 subtests make up verbal intelligence
  • 6 subtests make up performance intelligence
  • Summary Scores Verbal IQ (VIQ), Performance IQ
    (PIQ), and Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ). Range of FSIQ
    45-155

28
What are we Measuring in the WAIS?
  • Verbal IQ Score
  • Measure of acquired knowledge, verbal reasoning
    and attention to verbal materials
  • Performance IQ score
  • Measure spatial processing, attentiveness to
    detail and visual motor integration

29
What are we Measuring in the WAIS?
  • Verbal Comprehension
  • Measure of verbal acquired knowledge and verbal
    reasoning
  • Working Memory
  • Measures how one attends to, holds and processes
    information briefly.

30
What are we Measuring in the WAIS?
  • Perceptual Organization
  • Measures spatial processing and attentiveness to
    detail
  • Processing Speed
  • Measures ability to process visual information
    quickly

31
Verbal Subtests
  • The verbal scales assess the individuals
    competency in the following areas
  • A) The ability to work with abstract symbols
  • B) The amount degree of benefit a person has
    garnered from their education
  • C) Memory verbal ability
  • D) Verbal fluency.
  • The verbal scales are generally more vulnerable
    to cultural influence than the performance
    scales.

32
Vocabulary
  • Sample Question
  • What is the definition of breakfast?
  • What is the definition of tirade?

33
Vocabulary
  • Measures
  • Language development
  • Word knowledge
  • Overall verbal intelligence
  • Language usage and accumulated verbal learning
    ability
  • Educational background
  • This test tests acquired verbal knowledge, and
    the ability to easily express many ranges of
    ideas.
  • Vocabulary is the most stable (least variable) of
    all the subtests. As such, it is often used to
    indicate a test takers intellectual potential and
    sometimes to estimate their premorbid level of
    function.
  • High scores on vocabulary indicate high
    intelligence. Test takers with high scores often
    have wide ranges of interests, have acquired lots
    of general information, and sometimes have high
    achievement needs. Low scores suggest a poor
    educational background, lower IQ, impaired
    development of language and/or poor motivation.

34
Similarities
  • Sample Items
  • In what ways are a piano and drum alike?
  • In what ways are steam and fog alike?

35
Similarities
  • Logical, abstract thinking, concept formation,
    crystallized and fluid intelligence,
    distinguishing essential from nonessential
    details
  • Requires that the test taker be aware of the
    belongingness or togetherness of objects in the
    environment. Thus, test takers require the
    ability to reason abstractly and to form verbal
    concepts.
  • Scores decrease substantially in persons
    afflicted with schizophrenia, persons who are
    very rigid or inflexible thinkers, persons with
    senile dementia.
  • High scores show good verbal concept formation
    and good abstract reasoning.

36
Information
  • Sample Question
  • At what temperature does water boil?
  • Who was Catherine the Great?

37
Information
  • Measures
  • A) Range of general factual knowledge
  • B) Old learning or schooling
  • C) Intellectual curiosity and commitment to
    collect knowledge
  • D) Awareness of day-to-day world
  • E) Long-term memory
  • This test samples the type of knowledge that an
    average person with average opportunities should
    know. The knowledge is usually based on
    over-learned material.
  • This type of knowledge is very resistant to
    neurological damage (unless left hemisphere
    stroke) and psychological disturbance.

38
Comprehension
  • Sample Items
  • What do people use money for?
  • Tell me some reasons why child labor laws are
    needed.

39
Arithmetic
  • Sample Items
  • How much is 4 dollars plus 5 dollars?
  • The price of shirts is 2 for 31 dollars. What
    is the price of 1 dozen shirts?

40
Arithmetic
  • Measures
  • Computational skills and school learning
  • fluid intelligence,
  • Auditory memory and sequencing ability / short
    term memory (esp. auditory)
  • Numerical reasoning, auditory sequencing, and
    numerical manipulation speed
  • Concentration and attention
  • Contact reality and mental alertness
  • Logical reasoning and abstraction
  • Test takers often find this subtest more
    challenging and stressful than the other subtests
    because it is more demanding and is timed.
  • Persons who do well here tend to come from high
    socioeconomic families, are obedient
    teacher-oriented students and persons with
    intellectualizing tendencies. It also shows
    alertness, concentration, and good auditory
    short-term memory.
  • Low scores suggest poor mathematical reasoning,
    poor concentration, distractibility, or poor
    auditory short-term memory.

41
Digit Span
  • Sample Items
  • 7-1
  • 4-2-5-3-9-8-6

42
Digit Span
  • Measures
  • A) Immediate recall both forwards and backwards
  • B) Ability to shift thought patterns
    (reversibility)
  • C) Attention and concentration, short-term
    memory
  • D) Auditory sequencing.
  • Test of auditory/vocal short-term memory and
    attention.
  • 1) The person must accurately encode the
    information
  • 2) The test taker must accurately recall,
    sequence, and vocalize the auditory information.
  • Persons who are less anxious appear to do best on
    this test.
  • Persons who score well on digit backwards
    generally reflect persons who are flexible, have
    considerable concentration skills, and tolerate
    stress well.
  • Digit span along with digit symbol/coding are the
    most sensitive subtest for determining brain
    damage, intellectual impairments, and learning
    disabilities.
  • A) A 5-item discrepancy between digit forward and
    backward may suggest organic damage. Especially
    if digit backward scores are lower than the
    information and vocabulary subtests.
  • B) Lowered digit forward is more often associated
    with left hemisphere lesions, lowered digit
    backward with right frontal damage or diffuse
    brain damage.

43
Letter-Number Sequencing
  • Sample Items
  • L-2 (2-L)
  • D-2-G-5-H-8-K-3 (2-3-5-8-D-G-H-K)

44
Letter-Number Sequencing
  • The test taker must reorder and repeat the list
    by saying the numbers first (in ascending order)
    and then the letter in alphabetical order.
  • Overall the verbal component is assessing the
    ability to work with abstract symbols, verbal
    fluency, and verbal meaning.
  • highly influenced by the amount and degree a
    person has received from education ? subject to
    cultural effects.

45
Performance Subtests
  • Overall the scores on the performance scales
    represent
  • A) The degree and quality to which an individual
    makes nonverbal contact with the surrounding
    environment.
  • B) The capacity to integrate perceptual stimuli
    with purposeful motor behaviour.
  • C) The ability to work quickly in concrete
    situations.
  • D) The ability to interpret visuospatial stimuli.
  • The performance tests are not as vulnerable to
    cultural bias as the verbal subtests.
  • If a person scores significantly better on the
    Performance than the Verbal subtests (i.e., 12
    points or greater) what could this mean?
  • Superior perceptual organization abilities.
  • Very good at working under time constraints.
  • A tendency toward low academic achievement
  • Greater possibility of acting out
  • Someone for a low SES.
  • The presence of a language deficit (e.g.,
    learning disability).
  • Certain populations are also likely to have a P gt
    V discrepancy Native Americans, Hispanics,
    bilingual persons, and blue-collar workers where
    visual-spatial learning is stressed.

46
Picture Completion
  • 1) Picture Completion

47
Picture Completion
  • Measures
  • A) Visual recognition and identification
    (long-term visual memory).
  • B) Reality contact awareness of environmental
    detail.
  • C) Visual conceptual ability (perception of whole
    to its parts).
  • D) Discrimination of essential from nonessential
    details.
  • E) Ability to organize visually organized
    material.
  • Persons who find it difficult to detach
    themselves emotionally from each object also
    score poorly.
  • Persons who are impulsive also score low (quick
    responses without detail analysis). Low scorers
    may also have poor concentration, and poor visual
    organization.
  • Persons scoring high are alert, have good visual
    acuity, and have the ability to recognize
    important visual information.

48
Block Design
49
Block Design
  • Measures
  • A) Analysis of whole into its parts.
  • B) Spatial visualization
  • C) Nonverbal Concept Formation
  • D) Visual-motor coordination and perceptual
    organization
  • E) Ability to concentrate and perceptual speed.
  • It involves nonverbal problem solving skills
    since it requires an understanding of a problems
    components and then putting these components back
    into a whole.
  • To score well a person must be able to think
    abstractly and demonstrate a high degree of
    flexibility since the frame of reference changes
    quickly.
  • Administration is such that the researcher can
    directly observe the test takers responses.
  • It is relatively culture free, and has low
    correlations (.4) with education.
  • Depression and right hemisphere brain damage
    significantly lower block design scores.
  • Persons afflicted with Alzheimers score very low
    on block design. It is a good tool for early
    diagnosis/detection of Alzheimers.

50
Matrix Reasoning
51
Matrix Reasoning
52
Matrix Reasoning
  • Measures
  • A) Planning ability.
  • B) Nonverbal reasoning (perceptual organization).
  • C) Visual-motor coordination and speed.
  • High scores indicate an efficiency for planning
    ahead, and a flexible mental orientation. These
    abilities suggest and excellent ability to
    inhibit impulsive action.
  • Low scores reflect impulsivity and poor
    visual-motor coordination. Often low scores also
    indicate frontal cerebral impairment.

53
Picture Arrangement
54
Picture Arrangement
  • Measures
  • A) Ability to plan and anticipate consequences
    (understanding an entire situation).
  • B) Time conception and sequencing.
  • C) Understanding nonverbal interpersonal
    situations.
  • D) Speed of planning and associating information.
  • Picture arrangement is a test of ability to plan,
    interpret, and anticipate social events within a
    cultural context.
  • Picture arrangement and block design are key
    measures of nonverbal intelligence, with block
    design being less influenced by culture.
  • Picture arrangement is very sensitive to brain
    damage in areas that disrupt nonverbal social
    skills.

55
Digit Symbol-Coding
1
2
1
2
56
Digit Symbol/Coding
  • Measures
  • A) Psychomotor speed with paper-and-pencil,
    ability to follow directions, short-term memory.
  • B) Ability to learn a new task.
  • C)Ability to quickly shift mental sets.
  • D) Capacity for sustained attention and
    concentration.
  • E) Sequencing ability.
  • To score high persons need to have high
    psychomotor speed as well as good visual-motor
    integration.
  • The test requires appropriately combining newly
    learned memory of the digit with a particular
    symbol.
  • Digit symbol is highly sensitive to both organic
    and functional impairments. As with block design
    depressed and brain damaged persons have a great
    deal of difficulty with this test. Scores are
    also highly dependent on age. The older you are
    the poorer your performance.
  • Since much time pressure exists, anxiety,
    obsessiveness, and perfectionism significantly
    lower scores.

57
Symbol Search
58
Symbol Search
  • Measures
  • A) Speed of visual search.
  • B) Planning and speed of information processing.
  • C) Encoding information for further processing
    (learning).
  • It is designed to be a pure test to assess
    information-processing speed.
  • High scores indicate that test takers rapidly
    absorb information and can also integrate and
    respond to this information. Good amounts of
    visual-motor coordination, short-term visual
    memory, planning, attention, and concentration
    are also needed.
  • Low scores suggest slow mental process, visual
    perceptual troubles, lack of motivation, anxiety,
    and short-term memory impairment. A reflective,
    perfectionistic, or obsessive problem-solving
    style also tends to lower scores.

59
Object Assembly
60
Object Assembly
  • Measures
  • A) Ability to benefit from sensory-motor
    feedback.
  • B) Visual-motor integration.
  • C) Holistic processing (parallel processing).
  • D) Synthesis. Putting things together in familiar
    configurations.
  • E) Differentiation of familiar objects.
  • Object Assembly is a test of motor coordination
    and control (like block design and digit symbol).
  • Persons who have difficulty changing their frame
    of references (e.g., obsessive-compulsive
    persons) tend to do very poorly.
  • Persons who score well or poorly on block design
    tend to score similarly with object assembly.

61
Common test errors
  • A) Failure to record test taker responses, circle
    scores, or record times.
  • B) Too lenient or too tough! Give too many or too
    few points for an answer.
  • C) Failing to question when required by test
    manual.
  • D) Improper questioning of test taker.
  • E) Clerical errors (improper conversion of raw to
    standard scores, calculation of chronological
    age, etc.)

62
Culture IQ
  • IQ tests have been criticized for being biased in
    favor of white, middle-class people.
  • But efforts to construct culture-free and
    culture-fair tests have been disappointing.
  • Culture affects nearly everything to do with
    taking a test, from attitudes to problem-solving
    strategies.
  • Negative stereotypes about a persons ethnicity,
    gender, or age may cause the person to suffer
    stereotype threat, a burden of doubt about his or
    her own abilities, which can lead to anxiety or
    "disidentification" with the test.

63
Many social scientists consider IQ tests useful
for predicting school performance and diagnosing
learning difficulties, as long as test scores are
combined with other information and used
"intelligently." But ... critics would like to
dispense with the tests because they are so often
misused or misinterpreted.
64
Cultural Differences - USA
  • Researchers have found that
  • European Americans have higher IQ scores than
    African Americans
  • Hispanic Americans have higher IQ scores than
    African Americans but lower IQ scores than
    European Americans
  • Asian Americans have higher IQ scores than all of
    the groups

65
Gender Differences
  • Researchers have found that
  • Men score higher on math problem solving
  • Men score higher on visual spatial rotation
  • Women tend to score higher on verbal fluency

66
FCBTI answer key
  • Briskness (Zwawosc)
  • Yes 3, 29, 31, 34, 37, 49, 55, 94, 110, 114,
    115, 116, 119
  • No 11, 36, 41, 57, 62, 83, 98
  • Perseveration(Perseweratywnosc)
  • Yes 2, 7, 9, 26, 32, 40, 46, 61, 78, 103, 107
  • No 1, 15, 16, 19, 21, 24, 28, 47, 85
  • Sensory sensitivity (Wrazliwosc sensoryczna)
  • Yes 14, 17, 48, 51, 77, 93, 102, 112, 113
  • No 8, 10, 23, 27, 30, 33, 45, 56, 100, 106,
    109,

67
FCBTI answer key
  • Emotional reactivity(Reaktywnosc emocjonalna)
  • Yes6, 12, 25, 35, 43, 50, 63, 66, 68, 69, 74,
    91, 99
  • No 39, 42, 44, 59, 70, 108, 120
  • Endurance (Wytrzymalosc)
  • Yes 60, 64, 79, 87, 90, 92, 95, 101, 117
  • No 5, 38, 52, 58, 71, 72, 76, 80, 81, 82, 84
  • Activity (Aktywnosc)
  • Yes 13, 18, 20, 22, 53, 54, 67, 75, 86, 88,
    89, 96, 97, 104, 105, 111, 118
  • No 4, 65, 73

68
The Regulative Theory of Temperament (RTT) - an
overview
  • Theory primarily presented by Strelau about
    twenty year ago, has undergone several changes
  • The current status of the RTT - described by nine
    postulates
  • It ascribes temperament to formal characteristics
    of behavior present since early infancy in humans
    and animals, and underline the biological
    background of temperament characteristics as well
    as their possible changes due to biologically
    determined life-span variation and individual-
    specific interaction with the environment
  • RTT underlines the functional significance of
    temperament characteristics especially under
    extreme demands

69
The Regulative Theory of Temperament (RTT) - an
overview
  • the structure of temperament is described by six
    following traits briskness, perseverance,
    sensory sensitivity, emotional reactivity,
    endurance, and activity
  • the location of RTT traits among dozens of other
    temperament and personality characteristics can
    be demonstrated by means of correlational and
    factor analytic studies
  • a theoretical model of the "temperament-stress"
    aimed at examining the functional significance of
    temperamental characteristics as postulated by
    the RTT is constructed

70
Temperament - definition
  • Temperament refers to basic, relatively stable,
    personality traits expressed mainly in the formal
    (energetic and temporal) characteristics of
    reactions and behavior. These traits are present
    from early childhood and they have their
    counterparts in animals. Primarily determined by
    inborn biological mechanisms, temperament is
    subject to changes caused by maturation and
    individual-specific genotype-environment
    interplay
  • (Strelau, 1998)

71
Postulates of RTT
  • 1. Temperament reveals itself in the formal
    characteristics of behavior. This statement,
    based on the conviction that for centuries formal
    traits of behavior have constituted the most
    frequently quoted feature that describes the
    nature of temperament, determined from the very
    beginning our way of studying temperament.

72
Briskness (BR)
  • tendency to react quickly, to keep a high tempo
    in performing activities, and to shift easily in
    response to changes in the surroundings from one
    behavior (reaction) to another

73
Perseveration (PE)
  • tendency to continue and to repeat behavior after
    cesation of stimuli (situations) evoking this
    behavior

74
Sensory Sensitivity (SS)
  • Ability to react to sensory stimuli of low
    stimulative value
  • Pertains to different modalities

75
Emotional Reactivity (ER)
  • tendency to react intensively to
    emotion-generating stimuli, expressed in high
    emotional sensitivity and in low emotional
    endurance

76
Endurance (EN)
  • ability to react adequately in situations
    demanding long-lasting or high stimulative
    activity and under intense external stimulation
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