by Dr' Lauren Cifuentes

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Functional Design

byDr. Lauren Cifuentes
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• Design is concerned with finding the
  representation best suited to the communication
  of some specific information.
• Mullet and Sano
• What is simple should be treated simply, what is
  difficult should be reduced to the simplest
  terms.
• Josef Muller-Brockmann
• There are times when pictures can aid learning,
  times when pictures do not aid learning but do no
  harm, and times when pictures do not aid learning
  and are distracting.
• Lloyd P. Rieber

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Which is more memorable?

• The childs playhouse stands thirty feet high
  and is ten feet across the front.

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What comes next? Manipulating images to create
instructional messages. Computer graphics allow
us to create representations to convey our
instructional messages. Lets look at some
approaches to message design.
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Visualizing Facts, Directions, and Processes
Activities for getting your creative juices
flowing
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How well a graphic instructs is a direct function
of--

• how carefully it is designed
• how well it can be read

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Visualization of a Fact

• Babys heartbeats 140 times/min
• 10-year-olds heartbeats 90 times/min.
• Adults heartbeats 70-80
  times/min.
• On paper, sketch a visual that helps a learner
  understand the change in heartbeats as people age.

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Arrow Directing Flow of Attention
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Numbers Directing Flow of Attention
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Visualizing a Process Using Arrows and Numbers

• On paper, prepare a rough design to communicate
  the process of capturing a scene on film. The
  important aspect of this exercise is to challenge
  you to help the viewer see the flow or direction
  of the steps.
• Observe a scene that you would like to capture.
• Load film into your camera.
• Aim camera at the scene.
• Press shutter release to record scene on film.
• Take film to be developed.
• Evaluate finished photograph.

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Point of View Which works best?
Third person
First person
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Visualizing Instructions

• On paper, prepare a rough draft for a brochure on
  how to withdraw cash from an automated teller
  machine.
• Insert card into the card reader slot with
  magnetic stripe facing up.
• Enter your PIN
• Press the blue key for CASH WITHDRAWAL
• Press the green key to select the account from
  which you want to withdraw cash.
• Use the number keys to enter the amount of cash
  you want to withdraw.
• Remove your cash, card, and receipt.

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Visualizing a Process

• On paper, prepare a rough design for a wall
  display that will show how to give blood at the
  local hospital. The process of giving blood
  takes 45 mins.
• Donor gives personal data (medical history.)
• Technician tests for type and health of blood
  (finger prick.)
• Technician cleans arm.
• Technician draws blood.
• Donor rests for 15 minutes.
• Donor eats snack.
• Donor resumes normal activities (no stressful
  activities for 24 hours.)

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Design Considerations

• Purpose-- What outcomes are desired?
• Information content-- What is the essence?
• Users-- Age, abilities, training, interests?
• Configuration/structure-- Layout, underlying
  structure?
• Mode-- Verbal/ Pictorial/ Schematic
• Means of production/Resources--Soft/hardware,
  skills, facilities, funds, time, etc.
• Circumstances of use-- Instructor delivered,
  small group, large group, CAI, etc.

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Visualization

• Text lends itself to representation.
• Dual-code theory indicates that visuals as well
  as language help us encode, retain, and retrieve
  concepts and information in memory.
• As an instructional designer you must analyze
  content of instruction to
• determine what content lends itself well to
  visualization,
• determine how that content should be visualized
  to clarify meaning.
• Below are three approaches to visualizing text
  and a total of 12 methods.

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Instructional Designers

• show interrelationships among concepts.
• make connections with what students already know.
  
• indicate special characteristics of what concepts
  to facilitate learning.
• Lets see how.

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1) Show Interrelationships

• Cause and Effect
• Hierarchy
• Chronology
• Sequence
• Opposition
• Comparison
• Categories
• What visual conventions do we use to represent
  each of these interrelationships?

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1) Show Interrelationships

• Cause and Effect causal chain
• Hierarchy tree, flow chart, pyramid
• Chronology timeline
• Sequence numbers, letters, arrows
• Opposition Ying/Yang, arrows
• Comparison bar, line, pie graphs
• Categories matrices

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Cause Effect Example
Most ocean pollution caused by humans is
concentrated along the coasts of continents.
Industrial wastes, often containing
concentrations of metals and chemicals, sometimes
get into seawater and harm organisms. Pesticides
(insect killers) and herbicides (weed killers)
used in farming reach the ocean as runoff. Crop
fertilizers and human sewage create a different
kind of problem. They fertilize the water. This
causes some types of plant plankton to reproduce
very rapidly. When these plants die, theyre
decomposed by huge numbers of bacteria. The
problem is that the bacteria use up much of the
oxygen in the water during respiration.
Therefore, other organisms such as fish cant get
the oxygen they need, and they die.
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Pesticides (insect killers) Herbicides (weed
killers)
Crop fertilizer Human sewage
Industrial wastes (metals, chemicals)
Ocean Pollution
Rapid growth of plankton
Plankton die
Feed bacteria
Consume oxygen
Harm Organisms
Fish die
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Cause Effect Your Turn
The earths climate has cooled and warmed
naturally with irregular fluctuations over
millions of years. However, mans activities are
contributing to climatic changes. As a result of
mans activities during the industrial and
nuclear ages, the rate of climatic change is
predicted to increase dramatically.  
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Hierarchy Example

• According to Maslow, peoples' lower needs must be
  met in order for the higher needs to be met.
  First physiological needs must be met, then
  safety needs, then social needs, then esteem
  needs, and then the need for self-actualization.

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Hierarchy Your Turn

• According to the Pollution Prevention Act of
  1990, pollution should be prevented or reduced at
  the source whenever feasible. However, pollution
  that cannot be prevented or reduced should be
  recycled in an environmentally safe manner
  whenever feasible. For the pollution that cannot
  be prevented or recycled, it should be treated in
  an environmentally safe manner whenever feasible.
  Disposal or other release into the environment
  should be employed only as a last resort and
  should be conducted in an environmentally safe
  manner.

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Chronology Example
Earths history on the geological time scale is
divided into four geological eras Precambrian
Era, Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era, and Cenozoic
Era. The Precambrian Era is the longest era. It
lasts about 4 billion years and accounts for 87
percent of Earths history. The Paleozoic Era
last about 345 million years, and the Mesozoic
Era about 160 million years. The Cenozoic Era,
the era in which we now, has lasted for only 65
million years.
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The Earths History
Paleozoic Era (345 million years)
Precambrian Era (4 billion years)
Mesozoic Era (160 million years)
Cenozoic Era (65 million years)
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Chronology Your Turn

The Scientists divide the Mesozoic Era into three
periods. The oldest period is called the Triassic
Period. The middle period is called the Jurassic
Period. The youngest period is called the
Cretaceous Period.
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Sequence Example
The life-history of the butterfly and fly is made
up of four stages, egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
These insects show complete metamorphosis. The
larva stage resembles a caterpillar or worm. In
the pupa stage, the insect lives in its cocoon.
Grasshoppers and dragonflies are examples of
insects that go through incomplete
metamorphosis in which insects show three
stages, egg, larva, and adult. In the larva stage
the insect looks like a small adult insect.
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Complete Metamorphosis Butterfly Fly
2.Larva
1.Egg
3.Pupa
4.Adult
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Incomplete MetamorphosisGrasshoppers
Dragonflies
2.Larva
1.Eggs
3.Adult
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Sequence Your Turn

• Moon phases are the changing appearances of the
  moon as seen from Earth. The phases of the moon
  start firstly with the New Moon, secondly the
  Waxing Crescent, thirdly the First Quarter,
  fourthly the Waxing Gibbous, fifthly the Full
  Moon, sixthly the Waning Gibbous, seventhly
  the Third Quarter, and the last Waning
  Crescent before the next New Moon occurs. The
  complete cycle of the moons phases take about
  29.5 days.

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Opposition Example

• Among insects we find two suborders, Apterygota
  and Pterygota. Apterygota includes insects
  without wings and Pterygota includes those
  insects with wings.

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Apterygota Pterygota
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Opposition Your Turn

• Two endocrine glands, the thyroid and the
  parathyroid, work together to keep the levels of
  calcium in the blood at equilibrium. Eating
  calcium-rich foods causes a high level of blood
  calcium. This cues the thyroid to release a
  hormone that causes calcium to be deposed in the
  bones and to be excreted in urine from the
  kidneys. On the other hand, a low level of blood
  calcium stimulates the parathyroid gland to
  created a hormone that causes bones to partially
  dissolve and causes the kidneys to conserve
  calcium, not excrete it.

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Comparison Example

• Human blood is much like sea water. While sea
  water contains 55 chlorine, blood contains 45
  chlorine. Sea water contains 34 sodium, 3
  calcium, and 1 potassium. Blood contains 38
  sodium, 2 calcium, and 3 potassium.

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Human blood is much like sea water. While sea
water contains 55 chlorine, blood contains 45
chlorine. Sea water contains 34 sodium, 3
calcium, and 1 potassium. Blood contains 38
sodium, 2 calcium, and 3 potassium.  
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Categories Example

• There are two kinds of cells in blood red cells
  and white cells. Red cells carry food and oxygen,
  and white cells fight disease.

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Comparison Your Turn

• The technology for tidal power is essentially the
  same as that for river hydroelectric power. With
  rivers, however, the water flows in only one
  direction, whereas a tidal plant must be adapted
  for the two-way movement of sea water.

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Categories Your Turn

• There are many types of glaciers. For
  example
• Mountain Glaciers develop in high mountainous
  regions, often flowing out of icefields that span
  several peaks or even a mountain range. The
  largest mountain glaciers are found in Arctic
  Canada, Alaska, the Andes in South America, the
  Himalayas in Asia, and on Antarctica.
• Valley Glaciers are commonly originating from
  mountain glaciers or ice fields, these glaciers
  spill down valleys, looking much like giant
  tongues or rivers. Valley glaciers tend to be
  very long, often flowing down beyond the snow
  line, sometimes reaching sea level.
• Cirque Glaciers are named for the bowl-like
  hollows they occupy, which are called cirques.
  Typically, they are found high on mountainsides
  and tend to be wide rather than long.

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2) Relate What Is Learned to What Is Already Known

• Create a direct representation
• Create a visual metaphor
• Create a visual nonexample and/or example
• Create a visual mnemonic

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Direct Representation Example

• Cyme- where the primary axis ends in a flower,
  further growth being continued by lateral
  branches which may again end in a flower.

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Direct Representation Your Turn

• The sun is a ball-shaped object made of extremely
  hot gases. Since it is made only of gases, there
  are no clear boundaries within it. The outermost
  layer of the suns atmosphere is called the
  corona. Beneath the corona is the middle layer of
  the suns atmosphere, the chromosphere. The inner
  layer of the suns atmosphere is called the
  photosphere. The center of the sun is called the
  core.

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Visual Metaphor Example

• Remember the tongue like valley glacier?
• Spiders have book lungs connected to tracheal
  tubes. Book lungs work to remove oxygen from air
  instead of water. Book lungs are series of thin
  plates full of blood vessels that catch and
  carry oxygen throughout the animals body.

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Spiders Book Lung Catch and Carry Oxygen
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Visual Metaphor Your Turn

• Nerve cells have extensions that look like
  electric wires. The job of nerve cells is to pass
  messages in the form of chemical impulses from
  nerve cell to nerve cell throughout the body.

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Visual Nonexample/Example Example

• Cholesterol exists in food as a dietary lipid.
  You'll find cholesterol only in animal products,
  such as meat and dairy foods.

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Examples of Cholesterol
Nonexamples of Cholesterol
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Visual Nonexample/Example Your Turn

• Ice insulates. When temperatures dropped in
  Florida, workers in the orange fields raced into
  the grove hauling long water hoses! These workers
  began to spray the trees with water. The water
  would freeze into ice. The ice would keep the
  oranges warm!

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Visual Mnemonic Example

• Nine Planets
• Mars Mercury Neptune
• Venus Earth Saturn
• Jupiter Pluto Uranus

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My Mercury Very Venus Educated Earth Mothe
r Mars Just Jupiter Served Saturn Us Ur
anus Nine Neptune Pizzas Pluto
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Visual Mnemonic Your Turn

• The proper ordering of the biological groupings
  used in taxonomy.
• Kingdom Phylum Class
• Order Family Genus Species

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3) Indicate Special Characteristics
Highlighting special characteristics using

• Labels (1,2,3 A.B.C)
• Circles or other shapes
• Asterisks/arrows
• Color
• Shading
• Visual blowup

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Highlighting Special Characteristic Example
1
3 legs
1
2
2
3
4 legs
Spiders
Insects
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Highlighting Special Characteristic Your Turn

• A grasshopper has pairs of small openings called
  spiracles that lead to thousands of tracheal
  tubes. Through the spiracles, air travels into
  the tracheal tubes, then to all cells of the
  grasshoppers body. By using muscles to squeeze
  its abdomen, the grasshopper forces air out of
  the tracheal tubes. When it relaxes these
  muscles, air enters again, repeating the
  breathing process.

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Visualize Concepts for Learners

• Show interrelationships among concepts.
• Make connections with what you already know.
• Indicate special characteristics of what you are
  learning.

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