Does Your Instruction Rate 5 Stars? First Principles of Instruction

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Does Your Instruction Rate 5 Stars?First
Principles of Instruction

• M. David Merrill
• ProfessorUtah State University

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Case Study

• Elements of Market Strategy
• Brief Text
• Graphic
• Audio -- narrator reads text

Define Marketing Marketing is a word you hear or
use almost daily. You probably know several ways
the term is used. As you focus on writing a
strategic marketing plan, be sure your team
agrees on some common definitions, so you are all
clear about what the plan is to accomplish. How
would you define marketing?
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Case Study

• Elements of Market Strategy
• Inserted Questions

Because competition changes the market so
quickly, the smart move is to have an ongoing
process in your business for developing your
market strategy for each product or
service. Choose the statement below that's
true. __ Strategic marketing planning is
primarily for larger companies. __ Every business
that wants to succeed should make marketing
strategy a continuous process.
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• Course Evaluation
• Content
• Accurate, appropriate, tools
• Design Delivery
• Web optimized?
• Function?
• Enhance learning?
• Apply skills in simulations or scenarios?
• Customize?
• Relevant assessment?
• Learning styles?
• Navigation?
• Value
• Better than alternatives?
• Worth the time and money?
• www.onlinelearningguide.com

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Lguide.com evaluation
Under content they state "The information
provided in the course is clear, but overall the
lesson fails to engage. Although the concepts
involved in a marketing strategy are covered, the
course fails to give good, concrete steps and
detail for when you actually sit down to make a
strategic marketing plan. The result is limited
retention and limited applicability." Under
Design and delivery they state "Interactivity
is limited to learner assessments, which include
feedback. Assessments are offered before,
during, and following lesson units." Under value
they state "The course is fair value for
managers, who need an introduction to marketing
strategy." They give the course 2 1/2 stars on
their 5 star rating system.
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My Evaluation

• Marketing concepts -- no examples
• Assessment - remember information not
  application
• Based on Effective Instructional Strategies
• Not Problem-based
• No Activation of previous experience
• No Demonstration
• No Application
• No Integration
• No stars!
• Introduction to Marketing is ineffective
  instruction.

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First Principles of Instruction

• Many instructional design theories and models
  have fundamental underlying principles in common?

A principle is a relationship that is always true
under appropriate conditions regardless of
program or practice.
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Levels of Design Theory

• Instructional design theory, as represented in
  Reigeluth (1999), varies from basic descriptive
  laws about learning to broad curriculum programs
  that concentrate on what is taught rather than on
  how to teach.
• Do all of these design theories and models have
  equal value?
• Are all of these design theories and models
  merely alternative ways to approach design?
• Do these design theories and models have
  fundamental underlying principles in common?
• If so, what are these underlying principles?

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Principles, Programs, Practices

• Practice -- a specific instructional activity
• Program -- an approach consisting of a set of
  prescribed practices.
• Principle -- a relationships that is always true
  under appropriate conditions regardless of
  program or practice.
• Practices always implement or fail to implement
  underlying principles whether they are specified
  or not.

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Instructional Practice

• What is an instructional practice? It is what a
  given designer or trainer/teacher does to
  implement instruction.
• A given instructional principle can usually be
  implemented via a wide variety of practices.
• If a given practice fails to implement the
  relevant underlying principle there will be a
  decrement in learning.

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Instructional Programs

• What is an instructional program?
• It is prescribed set of instructional practices.
• Instructional approaches may facilitate the
  implementation of one or more instructional
  principles.
• If the practices prescribed by the program do not
  implement underlying principles, then there will
  be a decrement in learning.

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Example Program with Practices

• Lewis, Watson, Schaps (In Reigeluth) Social,
  Ethical, and Intellectual Development --
  Educations Full Mission
• Program
• Literature Based Reading
• Practices
• Select books rich in social and ethical themes
  (content)
• Partner Reading
• Read aloud
• Promote values (e.g. Ask How can we help our
  partners?)
• What are the prescriptive principles required?

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Example Program with Practices

• Kovalik McGeehan (In Reigeluth)
• Program
• Integrated Thematic Instruction (ITI)
• Practices
• Create a year long theme, monthly components,
  weekly topics
• Select a physical location or event (field trip)
• Identify key points (statement of concept,
  significant knowledge or skill)
• Write inquiries and assessment
• Using a topographical map of our area, determine
  the boundaries of our watershed. Draw a map to
  scale. Include our school, major roads, and a
  dozen other well known reference points.
• Very broad setting for learning.
• What are prescriptive principles involved?

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Instructional Principles

• What is a principle? It is a relationship that
  is always true under appropriate conditions
  regardless of program or practice.
• Parsimony would dictate that there should be only
  a few instructional design principles that can
  support a wide variety of instructional programs
  and practices.

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First Principles of Instruction

• Premise Many instructional design theories and
  models have fundamental underlying principles in
  common?
• Agenda Identify these underlying first
  principles?

A principle is a relationship that is always true
under appropriate conditions regardless of
program or practice.
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Hypotheses

• Learning from a given program will be facilitated
  in direct proportion to the implementation of
  these first principles.
• Learning from a given program will be facilitated
  in direct proportion to the degree that these
  principles are explicitly implemented rather than
  haphazardly implemented.

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Method of Inquiry

• Analyze instructional theories and models to
  extract general first principles.
• Identify the cognitive processes associated with
  each principle.
• Identify empirical support for the principles.
• Describe the implementation of the principles in
  a variety of different instructional theories and
  models.
• Identify prescriptions for instructional design
  associated with these principles.

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Areas of Investigation
Automated Instructional Design
First Principles of Instruction
Meta-Mental Models
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Cognition -- A Simplified View
Data Structures ProcessesDeclarative
Procedural

• Schematic Memory
• Schemata
• Mental Models
• Problem Solving

• Associative Memory
• Propositions
• Rules
• Automation

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Some Cognitive Principles

• Isolated actions and operations processed by
  associative memory.
• Information-about processed by associative
  memory.
• Problem solving requires schematic memory
• New schema are built by tuning and restructuring
  existing schema.
• Mental models operate on tasks and problems.
• Problem solving is selecting a mental model and
  processing the new information via the mental
  model.
• Mental models develop slowly via successive
  tuning and restructuring
• Problems of conceptualization, planning, and
  interpretation are processed via mental models.

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Cardinal Principles of Instruction

• The Cognitive Structure Principle
• the development of that cognitive structure
  that is most consistent with the desired learned
  performance.
• The Elaboration Principle
• incremental elaboration for increased
  generality and complexity
• The Learner Guidance Principle
• active cognitive processing
• The Practice Principle
• monitored learner performance with feedback

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First Principles of Instruction

• Learning is facilitated when
• the learner is engaged in solving a real-world
  problem.
• new knowledge builds on the learners existing
  knowledge.
• new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
• new knowledge is applied by the learner.
• new knowledge is integrated into the learners
  world.

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First Principles of Instruction
Activation
Integration
Problem
Demonstration
Application
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Bransford -- Star Legacy
Look ahead Reflect back
The Challenges
Go Public
Generate Ideas
Multiple Perspectives
Test Your Mettle
Research Revise
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McCarthy 4-MAT
Meaning
Renewing
Connect, Examine
Refine, Integrate
share, dialogue, reflect
adapt, re-present, share, renew
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4
WHY?
IF?
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3
WHAT?
HOW?
acquire knowledge, understand theory
act, practice, tinker
Try, Extend
Image, Define
Conceptualizing
Operationalizing
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Andre -- Instructional Episode

• Activate phase
• activate preexisting knowledge or motivational
  structures
• Instruction phase
• types of information provided
• how learners are encourages to process
  information and relate it to preexisting
  knowledge
• Feedback phase
• types of performances that are encouraged
• types of information provided as a result of the
  learners performance

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Problem

• Learning is facilitated when
• the learner is engaged in solving a real-world
  problem.
• The learner is engaged at the problem or task
  level not just the operation or action level.
• the learner solves a progression of problems.
• the learner is guided to an explicit comparison
  of problems.
• Problems promote acquisition, elaboration, and
  use of mental models rather than only associative
  memory.

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Activation

• Learning is facilitated when
• the learner is directed to recall, relate,
  describe, or apply knowledge from relevant past
  experience that can be used as a foundation for
  the new knowledge.
• the learner is provided relevant experience that
  can be used as a foundation for the new
  knowledge.
• Activates a mental model appropriate for
  restructuring or tuning.

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Demonstration

• Learning is facilitated when
• the learner is shown as well as told.
• the demonstration is consistent with the
  learning goal.
• the learner is directed to relevant information.
• the learner is shown multiple representations.
• the learner is directed to explicitly compare
  alternative representations.
• media plays a relevant instructional role.
• Instantiates the mental model.

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Application

• Learning is facilitated when
• the learner is required to use his/her new
  knowledge to solve problems.
• this problem solving activity is consistent
  with the learning goal.
• the leaner is shown how to detect and correct
  errors.
• the learner is guided in his/her problem solving
  by appropriate coaching that is gradually
  withdrawn.
• Enables the student to restructure and tune the
  mental model.

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Integration

• Learning is facilitated when
• the learner can demonstrate his/her new
  knowledge and skill.
• the learner can reflect-on, discuss, and defend
  his/her new knowledge.
• the learner can create, invent, and explore new
  and personal ways to use his/her new knowledge.
• Promotes association among mental models and
  increased generalizability.

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Gardner -- Multple Approches to Understanding --

• Youll never understand the theory unless you
  publicly apply it. p. 74
• Activation
• Entry points. one begins by finding a way to
  engage the students and to place them centrally
  within the topic. p. 81 Defines different
  types of entry points.
• Telling analogies. ..come up with instructional
  analogies, drawn from material that is already
  understood. P. 82

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Gardner (cont.)

• Demonstration
• portray the topic in a number of ways. p. 85
• Application
• provide many and varied opportunities for
  practice. p. 86
• Integration
• display ones comprehension in a publicly
  justified manner.

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Nelson Collaborative Problem Solving

• Build readiness -- (Activation)
• Form and norm groups
• determine a preliminary problem definition
• define and assign roles
• Engage in an iterative collaborative problem
  solving process -- (Application)
• finalize the solution
• Synthesize and Reflect -- (integration)
• Assess products and processes

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Jonassen --Constructivist Learning Environments

• The model conceives of a problem as the focus
  of the environment,
  Jonassen, 1999
• Modeling -- demonstration
• Coaching -- application
• Scaffolding -- sequence of cases
• Related cases
• worked examples
• multiple perspectives
• selectable information just-in-time
• cognitive (knowledge construction tools)
• task representation tools
• performance support tools
• information gathering tools
• Provoke reflection, Perturb Learners models --
  integration

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van Merriënboer -- 4C/ID
Principled Skill Decomposition
Analysis
recurrent skills
non-recurrent skills
Algorithmic Methods
Prerequisite Knowledge
Heuristic Methods
Supportive Knowledge
factsconcepts
plansprinciples
HeuristicsSAPs
conceptual modelsgoal-plan hierarchies
causal modelsmental models
procedures
specific rules
Part-Task Practice
Prerequisite Information
Whole-Task Practice
Supportive Information
available during practice
available before practice
Development of Learning Environment
Design
Rule Automation
Schema Acquisition
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Schank --Learning by Doing

• The first step is determining ... a mission
  that will be motivational for the student to
  pursue. Shank, et al, 1999
• Goal Based Scenarios
• Goals -- process and content
• Mission -- real-world problem
• Cover story -- the problem to be solved
• The role --
• Scenario operations -- application
• Resources -- stories -- contextualized
  demonstration
• Feedback -- learner guidance

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Findings to date

• Are the theories we have reviewed fundamentally
  different?
• NO!
• All theories incorporate some of these
  principles.
• No theory includes all of these principles.
• Some theories include principles or prescriptions
  not on our list of first principles. (Area for
  further investigation).
• No theory includes a contrary principle or
  prescription.

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How do these theories differ?

• Implementation details differ.
• Detailed discussion beyond scope of this
  presentation.
• Principle(s) emphasized differs
• Bransford -- phases of learning
• McCarthy -- phases of learning and learning
  styles
• Andre -- learning episodes
• Gardner -- public exhibition of understanding
  kinds of intelligence
• Nelson -- collaboration
• Jonassen -- problem solving in learning
  environments
• van Merriënboer -- problem solving sequence of
  cases sequencing of supporting information
• Schank -- problem solving (cases) stories

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Conclusion

• There are first principles of instruction that
  are similarregardless of theory or philosophical
  orientation.
• Hypothesis failure to implement these first
  principles in the programs and practices will
  cause a decrement in learning.
• Much remains to be done in articulating these
  first principles and tracing their role in
  different theories.

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