semantics

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semantics
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What is Semantics ?
Semantics is generally considered to be the
study of meaning in language.
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Some Views on semantics
1) One of the oldest views is the
Naming Theory.
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?
The form is a word in a language and the meaning
is the object in the world that it stands for,
refers to or denotes.
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Words are names or labels for
things.
In other words, the semantic relationship holding
between words and things is the relationship of
naming.
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Weakpoints of Naming Theories
1) This theory seems to apply only
to nouns.
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2)even with nouns, there will be problems,
because many nouns such as unicorn, fairy, ghost,
heaven relate to creatures or things that do not
exist.
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2. Concepts
This theory holds that words and things are
related through the mediation of concepts of the
mind.
This can be best illustrated by the Semiotic
Triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards.
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Thought or Reference
Symbol
Referent
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Thought or Reference
concept
Symbol
Referent
Linguistic elements such as words or sentences
The object, etc, in the world of experience
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According to this theory, there is no direct link
between symbol and referent (between language and
the world). The link is via thought or reference,
the concepts of our minds.
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Weekpoints ?
This theory raises a new problem. For example,
what is precisely the link between the symbol and
concept?
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Some scholars have suggested that the link is
simply a psychological one ---when we think of a
name, we think of a concept.
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The problem is that people dont actually try to
see the image of something in their minds eye
every time they utter a word.
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3. Context and behaviourism
During the period roughly from 1930 to 1960,
linguists gave pre-eminence to the empirical or
observational aspect in the study of meaning.
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This theory holds that meaning should be studied
in terms of situation, use, context---elements
closely linked with language behaviour.
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Firth, the leading British linguist of the period
held the view that We shall know a word by the
company it keeps.
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a piece of paper
a daily paper
an examination paper
a white paper
a term paper
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4.behaviourist theory
According to Bloomfield, the meaning of a
linguistic form should be viewed as the
situation in which the speaker utters it, and the
response which it calls forth in the hearer.
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the famous account of Jack and Jill
r
s
R
S
Events after speech
Events before speech
Speech
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S
r
s
R
Events before speech
Events after speech
Speech
Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the
relation between speech and the practical events
S and R that precede and follow it.
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5. Mentalism
This approach has been headed by Chomsky since
1960s
Mentalists believe that data needed for the study
of language can be supplied by direct resort to
intuition.
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They argue that people often judge which
sentences are synonymous, which sentences are
ambiguous, which sentences are ill-formed or
absurd, based on their intuition.
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Therefore they regard the task of semantics
mainly as one to explain those data supplied by
direct resort to intuition by constructing
theories
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Lexical Meaning
Two Concepts to Understand
Sense
Vs
Reference
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Sense
Sense relates to the complex system of
relationships that hold between the linguistic
elements themselves it is concerned only with
intra- linguistic relations.
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Pairs of words can be formed into certain
patterns to indicate sense relations.
Cow/hello, sow/boar, ewe/ram, mare/stallion etc.
form a pattern indicating a meaning related to
sex.
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Duck/ducking, pig/piglet, dog/puppy, lion/cub,
etc. form another pattern indicating a
relationship between adult and young.
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Narrow/wide, male/female, buy/sell, etc. show a
different pattern related to opposition.
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In fact, when we are talking of sense relations,
we are talking of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy,
polysemy, homonymy, etc.
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3.2 synonymy
Synonymy is used to mean sameness of meaning
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Context plays an important part in deciding
whether a set of lexical items is synonymous.
" What a nice ----of flowers!"
The items range, selection, choice, etc. are
synonymous.
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" His ----of knowledge is enormous!"
Range, breadth,etc. are synonymous.
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Difference in meaning
amazeand astound form a pair of synonyms. Both
suggest great wonder or bewilderment in the face
of something that seems impossible or highly
improbable.
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But they differ in degrees of wonder or
bewilderment. Amaze denotes difficulty of belief
and astound extreme difficulty of belief.
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A teacher was amazed to find that a lazy student
had gained a mark of 100 in an important
test. A woman may be astounded to learn that her
dearest friend has been spreading malicious
gossip about her.
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Anger, rage, fury, indignation and wrath are
synonymous in denoting the emotional excitement
induced by intense displeasure.
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"Anger" , the most general term, describes merely
the emotional reaction the word itself suggests
no definite degree of intensity, and carries no
necessary implication of outward manifestation
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" to conceal one's anger", " Tom is easily
aroused to anger."
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"Rage" often implies a loss of self-control. "
fury" , the strongest word in the group, suggests
a rage so violent that it may approach madness
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The insolence of the waiters drove him into a
rage, and he flung his plate to the floor and
stalked out of the restaurant. Mad with fury,
John pounded his fists on the wall and beat his
breast.
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"Indignation" denotes anger based on a moral
condemnation of something felt to be wrong and
unfair e.g.
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Abolitionists viewed the institution of slavery
with indignation. Mary expressed her
indignation at being unfairly dismissed.
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English is particularly rich in synonyms for the
historical reason that its vocabulary has come
from two different sources, from Anglo -Saxon on
the one hand and from French, Latin and Greek on
the other.
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Since English is considered to be a Germanic
language from a historical point of view, with
Anglo-Saxon as an earlier stage of its
development, the "Anglo-Saxon" words are often
considered "native" while those from French,
Latin or Greek are foreign, borrowed from
these languages.
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Couplets
Borrowed words
Answer
reply
homely
domestic
might
power
buy
purchase
fiddle
violin
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Couplets
Borrowed words
brotherly
fraternally
bodily
corporal
house
mansion
hearty
cordial
driver
chauffeur
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Triplets
Native
French
Latin
kingly
royal
regal
time
age
epoch
rise
mount
ascend
fast
firm
secure
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native
French
Latin
belly
stomache
abdomen
holy
sacred
consecrated
fire
flame
conflagration
fear
terror
trepidation
ask
question
interrogate
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A) dialectal synonyms
Synonyms belonging to different dialects of the
language
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British English
American English
coach
bus
garage
Service station
Car park
parking lot
Lay-by
Rest area
tube
subway
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British English
American English
Call box
Telephone booth
telephonist
operator
vest
undershirt
pavement
sidewalk
petroleum
gasoline
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B) words differing in styles or registers
Words having the same cognitive meaning but
having different stylistic meanings
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Penalties for overdue books will be strictly
enforced. ( written )
You have got to pay fines for overdue books.
( spoken )
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They made a decision to abandon the
project. ( formal )
They decided to walk out on the
project. ( informal )
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to chide (literary ) to berate ( neutral )
to scold ( neutral ) to blame ( neutral ) to
carpet ( colloquial, esp. BrE ) to
tell off ( colloquial ) to bawl out ( AmE, slang
)
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man (neutral ) chap ( colloquial
) fellow ( colloquial ) bird (
colloquial ) guy ( slang ) bozo (
slang )
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domicile ( very formal ) residence
( formal ) abode (poetic)
home ( general )
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steed ( poetic ) horse ( general
) nag ( slang ) gee-gee ( baby talk
)
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C) words differing in emotive or
evaluative meaning
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"little" and "small" are synonyms. But if any
emotion is associated with the designation, we
must choose "little".
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" A small boy" is as good English as " a
little boy." Yet if you should exclaim"
Poor small boy!", the phrase is unidiomatic,
because the word "small" has no affective
meaning.
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Isn't he a little devil! (indicating
affectionate regard).
What a pretty little house! That poor
little girl! (indicating sympathy)
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...She is a nice little thing ( indicating
tenderness or regard, but possibly patronage, or
a feeling of superiority)...."
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appreciative
derogative
frugal
miser
bravery
foolhardiness
Firm
bigheaded
statesman
politician
intellectual
egghead
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D) collocationally-restricted synonyms
These words can be considered as synonyms only
when they occur in conjunction with certain words.
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rancid, addled, sour, rotten rancid
bacon rancid butter addled egg
sour milk rotten butter and egg
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a flock of, a heard of, a school of, a pride
of a flock of sheep a heard of
cows, a school of whales, a
pride of lions
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accuse...of, e.g. The policemen accused his of
the arson. charge...with, e.g. At the meeting
he charged his opponent with evasion of the basic
issues.
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rebuke...for, e.g. The teacher rebuked the
student for being impudent. reproach...with or
for, e.g. He reproached me with ( or for )
extravagance.
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pretty handsome girl
boy child man
flower car garden
table colour overcoat
village airliner cottage
house
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sail a small boat navigate a
liner teach arithmetic inculcate
doctrine scholarly intelligence
animal cunning offering to a church
dole to the unemployed