BLOOD AND LYMPH

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BLOOD AND LYMPH Blood A connective
tissue Ground substance ? fluid Plasma Fibers
? fibrin present only when blood clots Cells ?
red cells (erythrocytes) and white (granular and
agranular) Platelets and chylomicrons Blood
7 of body weight 150 pound man has 5 quarts
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CELLS OF BLOOD Erythrocyte Mammalian RBC ?
biconcave disk Shape favors flexibility and
absorption Circular (except camel family
oval) Top and bottom depressed
centrally Edge view plump dumbell Variant
shapes indicate pathology (sickle cells)
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Human Living/undehydrated 8µ
diameter Dry smears 7.6µ diameter Sectione
d tissues 5.0µ diameter Size variations
(larger or smaller) pathology Most
mammals RBCs are slightly smaller Extremes
elephant (9.4µ) Musk Deer (2.5µ)
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Largest erythrocytes salamanders up to
80µ Surface area available (human) 4200 square
yards (almost a football field) Number of
Erythrocytes Human male 5,500,000/cu. mm
blood Human female 5,000,000/cu. mm
blood Total number in average sized human 25
million millions Pernicious anemia marked
decrease in number High altitude, exposure to CO
increased number of erythrocytes
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Color ? greenish-yellow (single fresh corpuscle)
red (massed corpuscles) Internal structure of
RBC cytoplasm appears homogeneous Nucleus
and organelles lost in later stages of
development 1 have network-artefact
(brilliant cresyl blue) reticulocytes
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Physical Properties of RBC soft, flexible and
elastic (squeeze through capillaries) Rouleaux
columns of corpuscles (stagnant circulation
drawn blood) Plasma concentrates RBC shrivels
(crenation) Water move out of RBC (hypertonic
plasma)
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Plasma diluted RBC swells Water moves into
RBC (hypotonic plasma) Exceed elasticity
of membrane, cell bursts releasing hemoglobin
hemolysis or laking (blood ghost) Other causes
of hemolysis Agents that damage cell membrane
(lipid solvents ? ether, bile salts, snake
venom)
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Agglutination of RBCs Acid salt solutions
glucose solutions, agglutinins Agglutinins
present on plasma membrane of RBC (blood groups
RH factor) Chemical Composition Hemoglobin 4
globular proteins (2 alpha chains 2 beta
chains) attached to heme (iron porphyrin)
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Life span of RBC 120 (human) 2,500,000 new
RBCs enter circulation every second (equal
number is lost) Fragments removed by
macrophages (where Reticulo-endothelium
exists) R-E liver spleen bone
marrow Macrophages reduce hemoglobin to
fragments Bilirubin exreted with
bile Iron retained and reused
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LEUCOCYTES White Cells cells with amoeboid
ability Classified Agranular (non-granular)
Leucocytes few inconstant, non-specific
granules in cytoplasm Lymphocytes
(25) Monocytes (5) Granular Leucocytes -
abundant, specific granules in
cytoplasm Eosinophils (3) Basophils
(0.5) Neutrophils (65)
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NUMBER Normal limits 5000 and 9000 per cu. mm.
adults Ratio White to Red 1700 Children
higher counts At birth 16,000 per cu. mm.
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Pathologically variations occur Leucocytosis
more than 12,000 indicates disease
Increase out of proportion for 1 or more
types Whooping cough lymphocytes Tuberculo
sis monocytes Pus forming infections
neutrophils Allergies/parasistic infestations
eosinophils Chicken pox basophils
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Leucopeonia decrease below 5000 Typhoid
fever
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STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS Typical
cells Resemble amebae Fixed preparations
pseudopodia withdrawn Centrioles, mitochondria,
Golgi apparatus can be demonstrated Nongranular
leucocytes nucleolus Components do not show
in stained preparations Smears cells flatten,
appear larger
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LYMPHOCYTE Commonest type in normal blood small
lymphocytes Slightly larger than RBC Relatively
large nucleus nearly spherical Slight
indentation possible Thin layer of
cytoplasm Basophilic (stains clear blue) Few
nonspecific azurophil granules
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Medium lymphocytes about twice size of
small Same characteristics More cytoplasm
relative to nucleus Large lymphocytes in lymph
nodes Three times size of small
lymphocytes Primitive, proliferative souce of
smaller lymphocytes Enter blood only
pathologically
Large Lymphocyte
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MONOCYTE Large mononuclears or transitionals Larg
er (2Xs) RBC Nucleus ovoid-, kidney-, or
U-shaped Location tends to eccentric Chromatin
delicate network Cytoplasm over half
cell May contain azurophil granules (Stain
grayer or muddier than lymphocyte)
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EOSINOPHIL Diameter twice RBC Size
differential same for basophil and
neutrophil Nucleus bilobed connecting
isthmus Chromatin fairly dense stains
moderate Cytoplasm considerably more than half
bulk Packed with coarse, round
ganules Granules uniform in size Granules
stain with acid dyes (red to orange)
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BASOPHIL Nucleus usually elongate Partial
constriction (2 or 3 lobes) Chromatin network
looser than eosinophil Relatively pale
staining Half cell bulk (2/3 diameter) Cytoplas
m with round coarse granules Granules variable
in number Granules overlie nucleus Granules
stain selectively basic dyes
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NEUTROPHIL Nucleus markedly lobate (usually 3
but up to 5) Masses connected by chromatin
threads Lobation increases with age of
cell Chromatin compact and dark
staining Cytoplasm abundant Closely packed,
fine, inconspicuous granules Granules stain
with neutral dyes Typical blood stains lilac
to lilac-pink Cytoplasm more than half cell mass
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LIFE SPAN AND DISPOSAL Difficult to
determine Leave blood and enter tissues Time in
blood is brief Lymphocytes few
hours Granulocytes longer After leaving
blood? Lymphocytes from lymph node one
week Granulocytes cultured 3 12 days
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Macrophages of liver spleen Most active
agents removing aging leucocytes from
circulation Other leucocytes move into C.T. -
disintegrate Eosinophils in walls of
respiratory and G.I. tract Neutrophils into
inflamed tissue (defensive role) Many
lymphocytes enter epithelia of alimentary
respiratory tracts Fate degeneration and death
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FUNCTIONAL CORRELATIONS Information from
experimental pathological material Leucocytes
largely inactive in blood stream Perform most of
functions outside vessels
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Amoeboid movement Swimming does not
occur Move over a substrate Active front
end ? pseudopodia Temporary rear ? passive,
trailing tail Neutrophils most active (up to 33
µ/min. Monocytes moderately active Basophils
sluggish Lymphocytes often immobile (can
become active)
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Migratory Activity Constant migration out of
blood capillaries Some may return to blood via
lymph Emigration increases with
inflammation Specific response to chemotactic
stimulation Leucocytes 1st attaches to
endothelium Next sends pseudopod through
wall Slips through capillary wall Neurtrophils
arrive 1st, later monocytes
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Eosinophils flock to digestive respiratory
tracts in allergies Lymphocytes accumulates in
tissues chronic inflammation
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Phagocytosis Ingestion of foreign particles,
bacteria, cells, etc. Neutrophils small,
discrete particles (carbon particles,
bacteria) Monocytes greedy particulate
matter, coarse masses prime scavengers of
cells and cellular debris
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Other Properties Numbers increase (all types) in
response to stimuli Oxidases occur in
leucocytes and monocytes Neutrophils contain
phosphatases, liberate proteolytic
enzymes Defense activities phagocytosis,
proteolysis, antibody formation First line
(invaders) neutrophils Antibodies
T-lymphocytes B- lymphocytes
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PLATELETS Protoplamic disks (mammalian
blood) Lower vertebrates thrombocytes Size 2
3 µ diameter Shape round to oval Number
200,000 to 350,000 per cu. mm. blood Tend to
clump Stick to everything Origin
megakaryocytes tips of cytoplasmic processes
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PLATELETS Life span a few days Function
Adhere to injured regions of vessels Forms
white thrombus (plugs leak/ covers bare
spots) Associated with clotting of
blood Plasma protein fibrinogen - enzymatic
conversion to fibrin Enzyme thrombin
converts fibrinogen to fibrin
(Ca2) Forms meshwork traps cells
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PLASMA The ground substance of blood 55 of
blood Slightly alkaline many substances in
plasma Gases Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids
Inorganic salts Organic substances (enzymes,
hormones)
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PLASMA Suspended particles (phase,
dark-field) Chylomicrons Hemoconia Functional
correlations of Plasma Respiration Coagulation
Temperature regulation Buffer mechanisms Fluid
balance
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PLASMA Transports hormones, excretory products,
nutrients Defibrinated plasma clear,
yellowish fluid, no longer able to clot
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LYMPH Fluid, collected from tissues and returned
to blood Tissue fluid from plasma through
wall of capillary Looses nutrients and oxygen
to extravascular tissues Acquires waste
products (tissue metabolism) Some is
returned to blood (capillaries tributary to
venules) Remainder to lymph capillaries
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Lymphatic capillaries Allow more to pass than
capillary endothelium Lymph from intestine
Chyle (globules of fat) Lymph from liver rich
in proteins Smallest lymphatic vessels nearly
noncellular lymph In lymph nodes small
lymphocytes added Lymph coagulates process very
slow, clot soft