Information Processing

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Information Processing

• Atkinson Shiffrin 3 System Model
• Levels-of-Processing Theory

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Basic Memory Processes

• Encoding-information is encoded for recall
• Storage-retain it over time
• Retrieval-get the information back
• Most problems are probably with retrieval

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Atkinson Shiffrin

• Sensory Store (aka Sensory Register)
• Short-term Memory (STM)
• Long-term Memory (LTM)
• All have different decay spans

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Sensory Store

• Holds exact copy of a sensory event very briefly
• Visual image ¼ second
• Sound ¼ to 4 seconds
• Capacity Vast

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Short-term Memory STM

• Brief storage 15-30 seconds
• maintenance rehearsal can extend this
• Capacity 7 or 2
• Think telephone numbers
• Chunking increases capacity

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Long-term Memory

• Capacity is unlimited
• Duration some memories are permanent
• Retrieval
• information is organized, indexed
• retrieval cues help

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Declarative memory

• Knowing that
• 2 kinds episodic
• semantic

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Procedural Knowledge

• Knowing how
• Implicit memory
• May not be able to explain how you are doing what

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LTM -really unlimited?

• Yes. For some things, memory will not end.
• Dont fear cluttering up your mind.
• In fact, the more you know, the more you can
  know.
• Why? More retrieval cues.

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Role of Prior Knowledge

• Important factor in LTM what you already know
• Easier for people to relate new ideas to old if
  any were stored
• Thus, the rich in knowledge get richer, the poor
  stay poor

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Retrieval Cues

• Fail to remember NOT because it wasnt in LTM but
  because you couldnt find it.
• With cue, you could, proving it was not gone
• Ever remember something right after a test? it
  was there, you didnt retrieve it

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Features of LTM

• Memory is for meaning, not details
• Bulk of items stored semantically
• Shouldnt try to memorize but encode meaning

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Rehearsal

• Maintenance rehearsal mental or verbal repetition
  of info
• Have to keep repeating the info cant be
  interrupted while doing this
• Therefore, bad study strategy

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Elaborative Rehearsal

• Focusing on the meaning of information to try to
  get it into LTM
• Even if you have to impose meaning on something
  it will be easier to learn

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Organize material

• Droodels example
• Mnemonics ARMM
• Kajacc

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Record examples

• If you remember penguins are birds, you are more
  likely to remember that flight is not essential
  to birdness
• As TEACHERS may use examples that are
  non-standard (e.g. Emus, not Robins)

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Advanced Organizers

• Read the headings and subheadings
• They are to help make learning meaningful
• Sample passage

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Levels of Processing Theory

• DeeperBetter Memory

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Levels of Processing Theory

• Information processed at a deeper level will be
  retained
• Deep processing involves the meaning of the new
  info

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To retain

• Generate some examples of your own
• Think about the implications of the material
• Actively question the material

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Study relating to meaningful learning or levels
of processing

• Students presented a list of 40 adjectives
• Then asked to respond to 1 of 4 questions
• Does it have big letters? Does it rhyme with___?
  Does it mean the same as___? Does it describe
  you?

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Results of R, K, K study

• Does it have big letters? 3 recalled
• Does it rhyme with..? 7 recalled
• Does it mean the same as __?
• relatively deeper processing
• 13
  recalled
• Does it describe you? 30 recalled
• good old self interest

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Intention to Learn

• People who intend to learn are more likely to
  learn
• However, even if not intending to learn people do
  learn more with deeper processing
• I.e., incidental learning is just as effective as
  intentional lrn
• IF THE LEVEL OF PROCESSING IS EQUAL

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Per this theory

• Children dont increase their capacities
• But do become more efficient processors of
  information

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Which theory wins?

• Both have supporters
• Both have experimental evidence
• sometimes the experimental evidence could be
  used to support either side
• So dunno yet

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Memory Strategies Children

• Main memory strategies
• rehearsal
• organization
• elaboration
• So, what do children use?

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Children and Rehearsal

• Can use this at 5 years old
• Use it spontaneously by 7 but not consistently
• By 11 use rehearsal and add elaboration and
  organization

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Children Organization

• Use it by 6-7 but not spontaneously
• By 10, use it often and about like adults
• By adolescence use organization fairly
  consistently

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Elaboration

• Includes mnemonic devices, mental imagery,
  connecting to previous experiences, summarizing
• Spontaneous use appears late, about 11 or 12

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Retrieval Strategies

• Recall
• Recognition
• reconstruction

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Recognition

• Babies cant describe faces (recall) but clearly
  can recognize them
• Recognition memory always easier for everyone

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Recall

• Reproducing the memory with few cues
• Lags behind recognition
• Subject to primacy and regency effects

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Reconstruction

• Ability to condense and restructure info in
  memory
• Unfortunately gives way to inaccuracies
• Last to emergeabout age 7-8

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Reconstruction theory

• Memories are reconstructed during retrieval
• We remember how it usually goes
• We fill in the blanks.

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Memory Failure

• Not processed deeply enough
• Not connected to other memories
• Retrieval problemsesp. interference from other
  memories
• Massed vs. distributed practice
• Because we intended to forget

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Metacognition

• Peoples knowledge of their own learning and
  cognitive processes
• Knowing your own learning and memory capabilities
  
• Knowing which learning strategies are effective
  which are not
• elaborative rehearsal not maintenance

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Other Metacognitive skills

• Using effective learning strategies
• taking detailed lecture notes
• Monitoring ones present knowledge state
• (hmm cant name all Hs wivesbetter
  review)

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In children, takes the form of attention

• Attention state of alertness or arousal
• Length of att. span correlates with later
  achievement
• Key to entry to the mind

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Children

• Focusing attention-reticular formation in brain gt
  age 6
• gtage 6 can concentrate and control attention
• Prior to 6, attention jerked around by
  environment

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Childrens attention

• gtage 6 can attend to details, more efficient in
  searching visual info
• Can usually block distractions
• Teachers job? Minimize distractions
• Thank heavens 6 year olds dont have cell phones

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Developmental Metacognition

• By age 6 there is some awareness of attention
  factors
• By age 7, aware of the limits of memory (prior to
  that, they are superheros of the memory world)

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At 7 they know that

• They can predict how hard it will be to remember
• Recognition is easier than recall
• Prior knowledge affects ability to remember
• Studying improves remembering

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What you can do for your own loser memory

• 1. Use distributed study methods to boost cues
  for LTM.
• 2. Actively think about the material, esp. how to
  apply it.
• 3. Make it more personally meaningful.
• 4. Test your own knowledge.
• 5. Organize, organize, organize.