George Homans (1910-1989)

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George Homans (1910-1989)
Alex Jordahl and James Liu
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Background

• On August 11,1910,George Caspar Homans was born
  in Boston to a wealthy Brahmin-style family.
  Eldest of four children, followed by two sisters
  and a younger brother.
• Grandparents were part of the upper class.
• He greatly admired his father, Robert Homans.
• Throughout Georges accomplishments as a
  naval officer, a newspaper man, and finally, a
  scholar, Robert was always there as a source of
  support and inspiration.
• Benefited from his financially privileged
  household, following in the footsteps of previous
  generations of Homans.

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Background

• 1934-1939 was a junior fellow at Harvard,
• 1939-1941 became an instructor of sociology.
• 1941-1945 served his country as a naval
  officer
• in 1946 was re-employed by Harvard as associate
  professor of Sociology in the department founded
  and chaired by Parson. However, he strongly
  disagreed Parsons Grand Theory, and didnt think
  it was found on empirical observation and
  deductive reasoning.
• Served as the president of the American
  Sociological Association (ASA) and spent his
  entire academic life at Harvard.

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Background

• Got a Bachelors degree of English Literature
  from Harvard.
• Learned much practical Sociology in an
  environment in which people were highly conscious
  of social relation.
• (e.g. the membership to final club in
  Harvard depends on a mixture of equalities
  personal as well as chose related to class,
  religion and ethnic background.)
• As a wealthy Bostonian who seemed to take the
  anti-capitalist attack presented by Marxists
  personally, and the ideas of Pareto providing him
  with a defense.
• Paretos idea influence a lot on Homans
  detailing the basic laws of psychology that guide
  human behavior, his application of general
  concepts associated with economics, and his
  desire to establish full deductive theories or
  explanations.

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Background

• The publication of the Human Group demonstrated a
  dramatic change in his theory.(from macro
  structural functionalism to micro individual
  interaction)
• He contributed this theoretical shifts to the
  readings in experimental psychology and his
  preference for the idea of individualism.
• Especially impressed by the psychological
  behaviorism best expressed by his colleague, the
  psychologist B.F. Skinner whose ideas played a
  major role in the thinking and development of
  Homans exchange theory.

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Intellectual InfluencesBernard DeVoto

• Homans stated that he became the person who made
  the biggest single difference to his intellectual
  life.
• Assigned Homans to read Bernard Mandevilles The
  Fable of the Bees, and Paretos Sociologie
  generale.
• The greatest service Benny did me was to
  introduce me to Professor Lawrence Joseph
  Henderson.

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Intellectual InfluenceLawrence Henderson

• Told him that to become a sociologist that he
  should learn about the work that he and his
  colleague Elton Mayo were conducting.
• Led Homans into direct contact with the new work
  found in industrial sociology by himself and Mayo
  at the Harvard Business School.
• Was a biochemist who was studying the
  physiological characteristics of industrial work

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Intellectual InfluencesElton Mayo

• A psychologist who was examining the human factor
  associated with industrial work.
• Director of the famous studies conducted at the
  Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company
  in Chicago.
• Found out about binging in the Bank Wiring Room.

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Intellectual InfluencesElton Mayo

• Homans conducted his own follow up study of the
  Bank Wiring Room years later and concluded that
  workers shared a common body of sentiments.
• Much of Homans The Human Group was a theoretical
  reanalysis of a series of previous studies of
  such diverse subjects as work groups in
  factories, street gangs, the kinship system in
  primitive societies, and the structure of a
  declining New England community.
• Was attempting to develop a theoretical scheme of
  interrelated propositions derived from observed
  regularities discovered in these studies.

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Intellectual InfluencesElton Mayo/Anthropology

• Mayo instructed his students to read books by
  prominent social anthropologists, especially
  those that compared aboriginal and modern
  societies in terms of social rituals in
  productive work.
• Homans believed that aboriginal societies were
  quite similar and repeated themselves (in basic
  behavioral modes) in places so far in separated
  time and place that they could not have borrowed
  cultural ideas from one another.
• Concluded that human nature was the same the
  world over.
• The Human Group was partially rooted in the
  functionalist tradition of Durkheim and of the
  British anthropologists Malinowski and
  Radcliffe-Brown, but his subsequent work
  abandoned this functionalist viewpoint in favor
  of an exchange perspective.

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Intellectual InfluencesAnthropology - Malinowski

• Influenced by his anthropological exchange
  considerations.
• Was concerned with the role that exchange plays
  in social life
• Spent years among the Trobriand Islanders of the
  Melanesian Islands, where he concluded that
  mutual exchange is the basis of social cohesion.

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Intellectual InfluencesAnthropology - Malinowski

• Found that reciprocy, the give and take
  principle, reigns supreme. Became a critical
  element in Homans exchange theory.
• Concept of exchange itself was influenced by his
  discussion of The Gift.
• Anthropologits and exchange theorists argue that
  a crucial aspect of gift exchanges bind society
  together through the mutual obligations and
  increases social cohesion.

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Intellectual InfluencesElton Mayo Cont.

• After exposing Homans to the ideas of
  anthropology, Mayo then gave Homans a second
  group of books, mostly on Durkheim.
• Read Durkheims research related to suicide.
• These readings upset Homans -Did not believe that
  the nature of society could determine the nature
  of the individual.
• Broke away from the influence of Mayo and his
  focused turned toward B.F. Skinner.

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Intellectual InfluencesB.F. Skinner

• With his arrival at Harvard in 1948,came
  psychological behaviorism, the famous pigeon
  studies, and the Skinner Box.
• Regarded theories such as structural
  functionalism, conflict, symbolic interactionism,
  ethnomethodology, and phenomenology as mystical
  enterprises.
• Believed these theories distract sociologists
  from the only concrete entities of study,
  behavior, and the consequences that make such
  behavior more or less likely to occur.
• Culture is made by behaviors and concepts.

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Intellectual InfluencesB.F. Skinner

• Ideas and values are useless, what needs to be
  understood are such things as costs and rewards.
• Internal states are irrelevant because they are
  unobservable.
• Was a pioneer of operant behavior. (Homans would
  use the world activity instead of operant)
• Fascinated by the prospects of the control of
  behavior of animals and human beings.

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Intellectual InfluencesB.F. Skinner

• In formulating his version of exchange theory,
  Homans turned to the behavioral school of
  experimental psychology founded by Skinner.
• Homans treated the social exchange between
  Skinner and his pigeons as the paradigm of all
  social exchange.
• Homans sociology is an attempt to build a theory
  about social life from the basic behavioristic
  propositions derived from Skinners psychology of
  operant conditioning.
• Believed that all behavior can be reduced to
  psychological organismic behavior.

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Intellectual InfluencesGeorge Simmel

• One of the first early major sociological
  theorists who attempted to identify universal
  characteristics of human behavior.
• Came to believe that peoples motives to make
  contact with others, was to satisfy needs and
  pursue individual goals.
• Suggested even though people do not receive equal
  returns, their interactions are always based on
  some expectation of reciprocity, and therefore
  should be viewed as kinds of exchanges.

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Concepts and Contributions Exchange Theory

• Basic premise people will continue to engage in
  behaviors they find rewarding and cease to engage
  in behaviors where the costs have proven to be
  too high in the past.
• Self-interest was the universal motive that made
  the world go around.
• A reaction against Parsons, Durkheim, and
  structural functionalism in general.
• Sociology should concern itself with explaining
  individual behavior and interaction and have
  little interest in consciousness or large-scale
  structures and institutions.

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Concepts and Contributions Exchange Theory

• Focusing on what people get and what they
  contribute in turn to the
  relationship.
• Homans believed that in very interaction
  something is being exchanged. Not
  only in the economic realm but also come in the
  form of approval, esteem, love, affection,
  allegiance, and other nonmaterialistic or
  symbolic expressions.
• In industrial observations, for example.
• If workers feel that they are paid unfairly they
  may form a union, bargain collectively with the
  employer or strike. But at the same time, they
  will weigh the potential benefits against the
  cost. When multiple value are involved, the
  rational calculation of benefits and costs
  becomes very difficult. SELECT PHOBIA

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Concepts and Contributions Exchange Theory

• In short, Homans exchange theory investigaes
  social behaviors as an exchange or activity,
  tangible, or intangible, and more or less
  rewarding or costly, between at least two
  persons
• He concluded five clear-cut propositions that he
  felt explains all human behavior. These
  propositions are the cornerstone of his exchange
  theory.

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Human Exchange Propositions The Success
Proposition The Principle of Reward

• If in the past an activity was rewarded, then the
  individual is more likely to repeat the
  activity in the present.
• a, The shorter the interval of time between
  the behavior and the reward, the more likely the
  person will repeat it.
• b, the more often a particular action of a
  person is rewarded, the more likely the
  person is to perform that same action.
• Although in the pursuit of rewards there will be
  certain costs, as long as the rewards are greater
  than the costs, the activities are likely to be
  repeated next time.

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The Stimulus Proposition the Principle of
Experience

• If a similar stimulus, or set of stimuli, present
  themselves and resemble an originally rewarded
  activity, the individual is likely to repeat that
  course of action. The more often, in a given
  period of time, an individuals activities reward
  the activity of another, the more often the other
  will emit the activity.
• It reflect the concepts of value and quantity.
• Quantity means the frequency of the reward
  during given period of time Value refer to the
  degree of the reinforcement which vary from one
  person to another
• The connection between the stimuli and the action
  is subject to both generalization and
  discrimination.

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The Value Proposition Reward and Punishment, the
Principle of Value of Outcome

• Rewards vary by the degree of value.
• The variable, value, may take either a
  positive(reward) or negative(punishment) form.
• Two classes of reward, intrinsic reward and the
  avoidance of punishment Two classes of
  punishment, intrinsic punishment and the
  withholding of a reward.
• That means punishment or its threat, in addition
  to reward, becomes a potentially powerful
  motivator of action.

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Combination of the First Three Propositions

• Rationality Proposition or Rational Choice
• These first three proposition assign value to
  our actions as individuals seek to collect
  favorable outcomes.
• Homans believed, during the procedure of making
  decision people often follow this formula,
• ApV, A means the likelihood of doing certain
  action, V means the value of the result, p means
  the probability of getting the result.
• If someone is choosing one within two course of
  actions. The value of result of the first action
  is 3 unit to the person, and there is 1/3 chance
  to get this result. While the value of the second
  action is 2, but the chance to get it is 2/3.
  Since A13 multiple 1/3 which is smaller than
  A22 multiple 2/3, most people may tend to chose
  to emit the second action
• I think this formula is displayed quite straight
  forward in the courtship. We seldom try to
  pursue the person who is out of our league even
  though they are perfect because the chance of
  success is often quite slim.

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The Deprivation-Satiation Proposition Principle
of Diminishing Returns

• The more often in the recent past a person has
  received a particular reward, the less valuable
  any further unit of that reward becomes for him
  or her. (the effect of satiation)
• Any behavior that is rewarding reaches a point
  where it begins to lose it value because it is
  too readily available.
• Deprivation aspect of this proposition When an
  individual is forced to go a long period of time
  without the desired reward, she or he will begin
  to lose interest and move on, seeking other
  rewards from other sources.
• But this proportion is subjected the value of the
  reward in question in relation to the time it was
  last presented.

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The Aggression-Approval Proposition. Principle of
Distributive Justice

• When a behavior does not receive the expected
  reward, or is punished unexpectedly, the response
  is anger or aggression and the aggressor will
  find such aggression rewarding.
• When an individual does not receive the same
  rewards as others, frustration occurs. They will
  be angry and learn to complain.
• When a persons action receives a greater reward
  than expected, or does not receive a punishment
  when expected, he or she will be pleased.
  Avoiding a doomed punishment or getting a
  unexpected blessing, definitely makes people
  happy.

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Concepts and ContributionsAnitfuntionalist

• In 1967, Homans wrote The Nature of Social
  Science which was primarily in response to
  Parsons and structural functionalism.
• Felt that explanation (of behavior) was possible
  only through the use of propositions and all
  theories must have them.
• Believed Parsons theories had none.
• Summarized the explanation as the process of
  showing how empirical findings follow from, can
  be deduced from, general propositions under
  particular given conditions.
• The general propositions are psychological and
  are propositions about the behavior of humans
  rather than about societies or other social
  groups.

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Concepts and ContributionsAnitfunctionalist

• Confronted structural functionalists by directly
  attacking Durkheim on three main issues
• 1. The Issues of Emergence All emergent social
  phenomena could be explained by psychological
  propositions.
• 2. Durkheims View of Psychology Psychology of
  Durkheims day was very primitive and
  concentrated on instinctive forms of behavior.
• 3. Durkheims Method of Explanation Durkheim
  believed a social fact is explained when one can
  find the facts that caused it. Homans was
  concerned with the relationship between cause and
  effect and argued that explanation was inevitably
  psychological.

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Concepts and ContributionsAnitfunctionalist

• Homans also attacked the four types of
  explanation used in analyzing institutions by
  structural functionalists.
• 1. Structural Argued that institutions which
  was correlated with others do not necessarily
  explain them.
• 2. Functional the belief that an institution
  exists because society could not survive without
  it. Felt that there is inadequate evidence to
  prove such an assumption and that functional
  explanation in sociology is a failure.
• 3. Historical The institution is seen as the end
  product of a historical process. Homans saw
  this historical explanation as basically a
  psychological one.
• 4. Ties in with historical explanation All human
  institutions are products of processes of
  historical change. Argued that institutional
  change must be explained by sociologists and that
  definitions of change should be based upon
  psychological principles

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Concepts and ContributionsGroup System

• Viewed a group as a plurality of people in
  interaction.
• When the members of a group maintain an active
  involvement with one another and share
  activities, interaction, sentiment and norms,
  they have formed a social system.
• Homans was quite clear about elements that
  comprise the group system, which are activity,
  interaction, sentiments, and norms.

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Concepts and ContributionsGroup System

• Activity- refers to what members of the group do
  as members.
• Interaction Involved the relation of the
  activity of one member of the group to that of
  another.
• Sentiment The sum of the feelings of group
  members with respect to the group.
• Norms Code of behavior adopted consciously or
  unconsciously by the group

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Concepts and ContributionsGroup System

• Homans group system is in the tradition of
  Pareto, who views a group as external in
  contrast to internal system.
• The group is external in that it meets in
  response to the needs of outside environment
• The group is an internal system because the
  elements of behavior are mutually depended.
• Changes to either the external or internal
  elements causes changes in the group system.
• Homans used the term feedback to describe the
  relationship between the internal and external
  group systems.

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Concepts and ContributionsGroup Structure

• Explained that the collapse of entire
  civilizations can be explained by the failure of
  a number of small groups to properly meet the
  group systems needs.
• Proper maintenance of the internal group system
  is at least partially depended on the group
  structure.
• The action of group members if often dictated by
  ones status within the group structure
• Members have a varying degree of commitment to
  maintain the social system.

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Concepts and ContributionsGroup Structure

• Social behavior is an exchange of rewards (and
  costs) between persons.
• The more value a member holds to the group, the
  more esteem they hold that individual to.
• The higher the esteem that one member holds, the
  lower esteem that is available for the rest of
  the members of the group.

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Concepts and ContributionsGroup Structure

• The higher the rank of a person within a group,
  the more nearly his activities conform to the
  norms of the group.
• Each member has certain role obligations.
• When role obligations are met, the group has a
  better chance of survival (maintenance).
• Most members of a group will meet their group
  needs due to the acknowledgement of mutual
  obligations.

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Concepts and ContributionsGroup Structure

• When the members of a group are trying to change
  the behavior of others, they will direct their
  attention to the individual who has failed to
  meet group obligations.
• On the other hand, when the group influence has
  failed to produce the proper interaction
  adjustment requested of the deviant member, the
  group will greatly reduce their interaction with
  this person.
• Group members will offer social approval as a
  generalized reinforcer to those who provide
  activity they value.

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Concepts and ContributionsGroup Structure

• This increases the likelihood that approved
  action will continue.
• Group members generally conform to the
  expectations of the group because they find such
  activities and interactions rewarding.
• Conformity is met with approval and acceptable
  behavior is more likely to continue.

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Concepts and ContributionsPower and Authority

• Homans felt that a person who influences other
  members has authority.
• An individual earns authority by acquiring
  esteem, which is done by rewarding others.
• Power can be defined as the ability to provide
  valuable rewards.

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Concepts and ContributionsPower and Authority

• Those with power and authority are in small
  numbers.
• Provides the seed for future conflict.
• When the leader directs others, they will
  inevitably cause members to incur costs.
• As long as the leader also incurs costs this will
  help to avoid conflict.

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Concepts and ContributionsPower and Authority

• When rewards that are distributed seem fair
  (distributive justice) the individual is
  satisfied.
• Humans act as if they find it valuable to realize
  fair exchange.
• They will also expose emotional behavior toward
  this end (the pursuit of distributive justice).

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Relevancy

• Avoiding the pain and pursuing the pleasure can
  be no more basic when regarding our human nature,
  since the exchange theory are established upon
  such principle, it will always be relevant as
  long as the human nature doesnt change.
• To demonstrate the relevancy of these
  propositions to todays or future world is nearly
  pointless, as indeed, any behavior that one can
  think of can easily be answered by one or more of
  his propositions.

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Relevancy

• From the basic level of exchange described by
  George Homans and expanded upon by Peter Blau
  (especially at the group level), to a network
  analysis approach by such contemporary thinkers
  as Emerson and Cook.
• The best illustration of the bright future of
  exchange theory is Gary Beckers winning of the
  prestigious Nobel Prize for economics in 1992.
  He believes people make rational choices about
  various behaviors based on economic theories such
  as cost-benefit and incentives.

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Criticisms

• Failure to provide an adequate analysis of
  consciousness, ignored the norms and values that
  symbolically shape exchange relations.
• Not all the sociological behaviors are reducible
  to pure psychological principles
• As Pareto had previously pointed out, and Homans
  failed to address, behavior has both logical as
  well as nonlogical aspects, but both provide
  the framework in which behavior is motivated.
• To micro in his orientation and for failure to
  address the macro structural issues of society.

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Philosophy

• Realism vs. Idealism
• -Realism because of his strong ontological
  views, studying conceptions of reality.
• Realism vs. Nominalism
• -Nominalism because he believes in
  experiments. Have to be able to experience
  things with your senses in order to do an
  experiment.
• Idealism vs. Materialism
• -Materialism because of his
  deductive-nomological approach that states
  that a general law can cover all similar
  situations and allows for outcomes to be deduced.