Unit 1, Objective 5:

1
Unit 1, Objective 5

• Describe how some of the important events in the
  history of instructional design are related to
  current instructional design theories and
  practices.

2
Important Events in the History of ID

• World War II and subsequent military developments
• The programmed instruction movement
• The launching of Sputnik
• The behavioral objectives movement
• The criterion-referenced testing movement
• The early work of Robert M. Gagne
• The formative evaluation movement
• Development of the first systems approach models

3
Important People in theHistory of ID

• Eva Baker
• Lee Cronbach
• Robert Glaser
• Susan Markle
• Michael Scriven
• Bela Banathy

• Leslie Briggs
• Robert Gagne
• Robert Mager
• Sidney Pressey
• B.F. Skinner
• Sigmund Freud

4
Important Events in the History of ID

• 1. World War II and subsequent military
  developments
• a. psychologists get involved with real world
  problems
• b. examination of effective selection methods
• - testing intellectual, psychomotor, perceptual
  skills
• -similar to
• assessing entry skills
• c. examination of effective training methods
• - experimental studies
• d. systems analysis
• e. task analysis

5
Important Events in the History of ID cont...

• 2. Programmed Instruction (Skinner and others)
• a. application of principles of behavioral
  psychology
• - examples of linear and branching programs

6
Skinners Ideas The Beginnings of Programmed
Instruction

• Requirements for Increasing Learning
• a. present instruction in small segments
• b. require learners to actively respond
• c. provide reinforcement for correct responses
• d. provide each learner with as much time as
  he/she needs to learn

• Characteristics of
• Programmed Instruction
• a. instruction is presented in small frames
  (steps)
• b. learners must answer a question in each frame
• c. learners are immediately told the correct
  answer (immediate feedback)
• d. learners are allowed to proceed through the
  instruction at their own pace

7
Skinner and Programmed Instruction Cont.

• 2. Programmed Instruction (Skinner and others)
• a. application of principles of behavioral
  psychology
• - examples of linear and branching programs
• b.. forefathers of the P.I. movement Thorndike
  Pressey
• - see quotes

8
Thorndikes Quote

• If, by the miracle of modern ingenuity, a book
  could be so arranged that only to him who had
  done what was directed on page one would page two
  become visible, and so on, much that now requires
  personal instruction could be managed by print.
• (Thorndike, 1912)

9
Sidney Pressey's Teaching and Testing Machine

• "In 1926, Pressey described a machine that 'tests
  and also teachers'. A student studied a subject
  in the usual way and then turned to the machine.
  It directed the student to the first item on a
  printed multiple choice test, and the student
  made a choice by pressing a numbered key. If
  the choice was right,the machine moved on to the
  next item if the choice was wrong, the student
  pressed another key."
• (Skinner, 1986)
• "First, a simple mechanical arrangement
  transformed the machine into a self-scoring
  record keeping device. Second, a simple
  attachment made possible the placing of a reward
  dial set for any desired goal score that, if
  attained, automatically gave the learner a candy
  lozenge."
• (Saettler, 1990)

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Most influential person?

• The initials of the most influential person in
  the field of instructional design are
• 1. W.D.
• 2. R.M.G.
• 3. B.F.S.
• 4. R.A.R.

11
Programmed Instruction Cont...

• 2. Programmed Instruction (Skinner and others)
• a. application of principles of behavioral
  psychology
• - examples of linear and branching programs
• b.. forefathers of the P.I. movement Thorndike
  Pressey
• - see quotes
• c. improving instruction by analyzing errors
• d. self-paced instruction

12
Amount Learned
Instructional Time
Same for all Students
Varies among Students
Traditional Instruction Programmed Instruction
Same for all Students
Varies among Students
13
Programmed Instruction Cont...

• 2. Programmed Instruction (Skinner and others)
• a. application of principles of behavioral
  psychology
• - examples of linear and branching programs
• b.. forefathers of the P.I. movement Thorndike
  Pressey
• - see quotes
• c. improving instruction by analyzing errors
• d. self-paced instruction
• e. systematic design process

14
Using a "Systems Approach" to Design Programmed
Instruction

• "Programmed instruction has been credited by some
  as introducing the systems approach to education
  by analyzing and breaking down content into
  specific behavioral objectives, designing the
  necessary steps to achieve the objectives,
  setting up procedures to try out and revise the
  steps, and validating the program against the
  attainment of the objectives."
• (Heinich, 1970)

15
Programmed Instruction Cont...

• 2. Programmed Instruction (Skinner and others)
• a. application of principles of behavioral
  psychology
• - examples of linear and branching programs
• b.. forefathers of the P.I. movement Thorndike
  Pressey
• - see quotes
• c. improving instruction by analyzing errors
• d. self-paced instruction
• e. systematic design process
• f. if students dont learn, who is at fault?

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Point 3

• 3. Launching of Sputnik (Soviet space satellite)
• a. increased U.S. funding for math and science
  education

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Sputnik

• In 1957, "the Russians put Sputnik into orbit.
  Americans were stunned. How could the Russians
  have beaten us into outer space? Something must
  be wrong with American education. Congress
  quickly made money available to improve
  teaching, especially in the areas of science and
  mathematics."
• (Skinner, 1986)
• - See book cover from 1950's

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Skinner's Views on Educators' Response to Sputnik

• "Programmed instruction was quickly adopted by
  industry, but the educational establishment was
  not impressed. It was as if the automobile
  industry had been shown how to build cars in
  half the time at half the cost and had said
  'no'.
• Instead of using programmed instruction,
  educators decided that "students were to discover
  things for themselves. They were not to
  memorize, but to think, grasp concepts, explore,
  be creative. Vast sums were spent on the
  development of these types of materials.
• "Twenty-five years later, however, students'
  grades in high school science and mathematics
  were, if anything, a little worse."

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Points 3 4

• 3. Launching of Sputnik (Soviet space satellite)
• a. increased U.S. funding for math and
  science education
• b. problems with the materials points to need
  for formative evaluation
• 4. Behavioral objectives (Mager)
• a. P.I. requires specification of what is to
  learned
• b. shifts the focus from what teachers do to
  what students learn

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Points 5 6

• 5. Criterion-referenced testing (Glaser)
• a. shift from comparing students to measuring
  skill acquisition
• b. tests measure attainment of objectives
• 6. Gagnes work
• a. domains of learning
• b. conditions of learning/events of instruction
• c. learning hierarchies/subordinate skills

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Point 7 8

• 7. Formative evaluation (Cronbach, Scriven,
  Markle)
• a. evaluation while instruction is being
  designed
• 8. Development of systems approach models(Glaser,
  Banathy,
• Gagne, Briggs, etc.)
• a. bringing together objectives, task analysis,
  f.e., c.r.t., etc.

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The Final Question

• ??????????????
• Which team is
• 1
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