Module

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Module 3 Educational Administration

• In this module, you will learn about
• Theory and how it shapes practice and research
• Early organizational theory
• The school as a social system
• Modern leadership theories

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Educational Administration as a Field of Study

• Influenced very little until mid-20th century
• No contact between schools of education
  business
• Taught by former superintendents
• Focus on practical, how-to-do-it
• Research during this time Status studies of
  current problems, gathering of opinion

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On the other hand

• Beginning in the late 1800s (industrial
  revolution), businesspeople in Western Europe and
  the US were looking for ways to increase profits.
  
• Began to study organizations
• Key individuals were engineers and technically
  oriented scientists
• Led to the development of organizational theories

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What is organizational theory?

• According to Hoy Miskel (2003) A set of
  interrelated concepts, assumptions, and
  generalization that describes and explains
  patterns of behavior in organizations.
• The purpose of theory is to provide an
  explanation of how things work.
• Theory also guides research.
• Theory also guides practice.
• Purpose of science is to test theory and provide
  reliable explanations.

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Early Theories

• 3 Periods of Administrative Science
• Scientific management
• Human relations
• Behavioral science

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1. Classical Organizational Thought 1900-1930

• Frederick Taylor Scientific Management- early
  1900s (organizations seen as machines)
• Focus on efficiency
• Time motion studies
• Rigid discipline on the job
• Division of labor
• Minimal interpersonal contacts between workers
• Span of Control
• Incentive pay systems

• Henri Fayol Functions of Administration (focus
  on the manager) - 1916
• Planning
• Organizing
• Commanding (leading)
• Coordinating
• Controlling ((evaluating results)

Read more _at_ http//courses.bus.ualberta.ca/orga417
-reshef/Fayol.htm

• Read more _at_
• http//www.accel-team.com/scientific/scientific_01
  .html
• http//www.accel-team.com/scientific/scientific_02
  .html

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Human Relations Approach 1930-1960

• Hawthorne Studies Elton Mayo (1927-32)
• 3 Experiments---Studying the relation of quality
  and quantity of illumination to efficiency in
  industry.
• Results
• Increased production rates did not correspond
  with increased lighting, nor did production
  decline with reduced illumination.
• Mayo found that worker groups developed an
  informal social structure with norms, values, and
  sentiments that affected performance.

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Mayo found that within the formal organizations
there were informal organizations. Within these
informal organizations, there were

• Norms The way we do things around here.
• Grapevines The way information traveled through
  the organization
• Informal leaders
• Cliques
• Informal norms No squealing! No rate
  busting! Be a regular guy! Dont make me look
  bad!
• Read more about the Hawthorne Studies _at_
• http//www.accel-team.com/motivation/hawthorne_02
  .html

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3. Behavioral Science Approach 1960-Present

• Combination of classical organization thought and
  human relations approach propositions drawn
  from psychology, sociology, political science,
  and economics
• Its Focus---Work behavior in formal
  organizations.

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Max Weber-Theory of Bureaucracy

• Work appeared in 1940s
• Developed to address the needs of an urban
  industrial society which was experiencing
  conflict between people and the organization
• Principles of administration
• A division of labor based on functional
  specialization
• A well-defined hierarchy of authority
• A system of rules covering the rights and duties
  of employees
• A system of procedures for dealing with work
  situations
• Impersonality of interpersonal relations

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Chester Bernard- Functions of the Executive

• First to think in terms of formal and informal
  organizations within organizations
• Formal organizations formally established for
  an explicit purpose of achieving goals
• Informal organizations individuals that
  interact with each other without any formally
  established goals or objectives

Schools are formal organizations. What are the
informal organizations in your school?
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Social Systems Theory
Present-day behavioral scientists think of
organizations as social systems.

• System a set of interdependent elements forming
  an organized whole (Hoy Miskel, 1991, p. 17).
• Closed Behavior explained almost exclusively in
  terms of forces inside the organization.
• Open Organizations influenced, but also
  dependent on environments

Are schools closed or open? Are we influenced by
our environment economy, changes in laws,
politics, etc.?
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By 1960s

• Schools seen as open social systems
• They are specifically goal oriented.
• The work to be done so as to achieve goals is
  divided into subtasks and assigned as official
  duties to established positions in the
  organization.
• These positions are arranged hierarchically in
  the formal organizations, and authority
  relationships are clearly defined.
• General and impersonal organizational rules
  govern, to a large extent, what people do in
  their official capacity and also, to a large
  extent, shape and delimit the interpersonsal
  interactions of people in the organization.
• (Owens, 2004)

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Schools as Social Systems
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Social Systems

• A bounded set of elements (subsystems) and
  activities that interact and constitute a single
  social entity (Hoy Miskel, 1991).

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Basic Assumptions for Social Systems Model (Hoy
and Miskel)

• Social systems are comprised of interdependent
  parts, characteristics, and activities that
  contribute to and receive from the whole. When
  one part is affected, a ripple goes through the
  social system.
• Example Decreased funding from the state
  increased class size.
• Social systems are goal-oriented, and indeed they
  have multiple goals.
• Example Student learning is our main goal, but
  we have many other goals discipline, balancing
  the budget, etc.
• Social systems are peopled. Different roles in
  the school principal, teacher, secretary,
  custodian, etc.
• Social systems are structured modern
  bureaucracy
• Social systems are normative. People are expected
  to act in a certain way.
• Example How should new teachers act?

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• Social systems are sanction bearing Norms are
  reinforced with reward and punishment.
• What happens when an employee or a student is
  late to school?
• Social systems are open systems Schools are
  impacted by values of community, by politics, and
  by history.

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Key Elements of the School as a Social SystemHoy
Miskel (2004)

• Structure Roles are expectations of positions
  that are arranged in a hierarchy.
• Individual The individual is a key unit in any
  social system regardless of position, people
  bring with them individual needs, beliefs, and a
  cognitive understanding of the job.
• Culture Represents the unwritten feeling part of
  the organization its shared norms and values
• Politics Informal power relations that develop
  spontaneously.
• Core The teaching-learning process is the
  technical core of schools.

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continued

• Environment Everything outside the organization
  source of inputs
• Outputs The products of the organizations, e.g.
  educated students
• Feedback Communication that monitors behavior,
  e.g. state test scores, community feedback
• Effectiveness Congruence between expected and
  actual outcomes

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Environment

• Social, legal, economic, political, demographic,
  and technological trends
• Constituencies and stakeholders parents,
  taxpayers, unions, regulatory agencies, colleges
  and universities, state legislatures, accrediting
  agencies, and educational associations

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A Social Systems View of the Individual in a
School Organization
Community
School
Dept. or Grade Level
Work Group
Individual
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Questions to Ponder

• Who are the people who have formal authority over
  teachers in your school?
• Is there a narrow or broad span of control? How
  much autonomy do teachers have to make their own
  decisions?
• Who are the people who have informal authority,
  but no formal authority?
• Where do they get their influence?
• How do formal and informal leaders interact?
• Describe the grapevine in your school?
• How does the environment impact your school?

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Development of Leadership Theories1960- Present
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Leadership

• Focus is on organizational direction and purpose.
• Influencing of actions, behaviors, beliefs, and
  goals of
• others with the willing cooperation
• of those involved.
• National Policy Board for Educational
  Administration describes educational leadership
  as
• giving purpose and direction for individual and
  group processes shaping a school culture and
  values facilitating the development of a
  strategic plan and vision for the school
  formulating goals and planning change efforts
  with staff and setting priorities for the school
  in the context of community and district
  priorities and student and staff needs (p.11)
• (Matthews, J. (January 19, 1994). Analysis of
  seven frameworks of educational administration.
  Paper presented to the National Policy board for
  Educational Administration.)

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• Management is doing things right.
• Leadership is doing the right things.
• Administration is responsible
• for both.

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Self-Assessments

• Before proceeding, you received three
  self-assessment forms in class
• 6.1 The X-Y Scale
• 6.4 Leadership Behavior Survey
• 6.5 Measuring Preferred Management Styles
• Please take the self-assessments and score them
  before proceeding with this PowerPoint.
• Keep in mind that with self-assessments,
  individuals tend to rate themselves as they would
  like to be instead of how they really are. Try
  to be honest with yourself.

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McGregors Theories X and Y (1960)
Self Assessment 6.1 The X-Y Scale

• After completing and scoring the self-assessment,
  read pages 156-159 in Education Administration A
  Problem-Based Approach by Cunningham Cordeiro
• Are you more a Theory X or a Theory Y person?
• Do you agree?

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Ohio State Studies (two-dimensional paradigm)
Self Assessment 6.4 The Leadership Behavior
Survey

• After completing and scoring the self-assessment,
  read page 159 in Education Administration A
  Problem-Based Approach by Cunningham Cordeiro
• In which quadrant did you fall?
• Do you agree?

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Self Assessment 6.5 The New Managerial Grid

• After completing and scoring the self-assessment,
  read pages 161-163 in Education Administration A
  Problem-Based Approach by Cunningham Cordeiro
• In which grid did you fall?
• Do you agree?

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• Whats the problem with these
• theories of leadership?
• Read on

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Situational and Contingency Leadership Theories

• Reject the conclusion that there is one best
  approach to leadership.
• Style is determined by time available, task
  specificity, competence and maturity of the
  staff, need for involvement, and dynamics of the
  situation.
• Other contextual variables include group size,
  rewards, method of appointment, and technical
  background.

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Recent Theories of Leadership

• Search for Excellence (Peters and Waterman, 1982)
• 8 attributes of successful leadership
• Bias for action
• Staying close to the customer
• Autonomy and entrepreneurship
• Productivity through people
• Hands-on, value-driven
• Stick to the knitting
• Simple form, lean staff
• Simultaneous loose-tight properties

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Covey, 1989

• Seven habits of highly effective people
• Be proactive
• Begin with the end in mind
• Put first things first
• Think win/win
• Seek first to understand, then be understood
• Synergize
• Sharpen the saw

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• Cultural leadership (Schein)
• Most important thing that leaders do is help
  shape an effective culture in which people will
  complete their work.
• Read more _at_ http//changingminds.org/disciplines/l
  eadership/actions/schein_culture.htm

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Other Theories

• Total Quality Management Read about _at_
  http//www.isixsigma.com/library/content/c020626a.
  asp
• School-Based Management Site-based management

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Transactional v. Transformational Leadership
Burns (1978)

• Transactional Leadership
• Is based on defining needs, assigning clear
  tasks, rewarding congruent behavior, and having a
  command-and-control mentality.
• Teachers are willing to trust the principal
  because they need to have problems solved and
  they believe the leader can solve them.

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Transformational Leadership

• Leaders create the incentives for people to
  continuously improve their practices, and thus,
  those of the organization.
• See change as necessary and strive to cause it.
• 3 goals
• Help staff members develop and maintain a
  collaborative, professional school culture.
• Foster teacher development.
• Help teachers solve problems together more
  effectively.
• (Leithwood, 1999)

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Goals are accomplished through

• Visionknowing your desired outcomes and methods
  of achievement through lots of idea development
  and the creation of vision.
• Communication-expressing your ideas through
  various forms of presentation, including symbolic
  actions and shared meaning.
• Trust-being predictable, accountable, persistent,
  and reliable and having integrity.
• Deployment-knowing and nurturing of strengths,
  compensating for weaknesses, evaluating in
  relation to job requirements, and focusing on
  positive goals not problems.
• (Bennis Nanus, 1985)

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• Reflective Practitioner (Sergiovanni)
• Basing practice on findings and principles that
  emerge from theory and research
• Building Leadership Capacity in Schools (Linda
  Lambert, 1998)
• Leadership is about learning together, and
  constructing meaning and knowledge collectively
  and collaboratively.
• Leading is shared.
• Everyone has the potential and right to work as a
  leader.

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Michael FullanLeadership and the Change Process

• Role of principal is to develop collaborative
  cultures (1992)
• Read about Fullans latest ideas for school
  reform _at_
• http//www.leading-learning.co.nz/newsletters/vol0
  1-no03-2002.html

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Peter Senge (1990)The Learning Organization

• Learning organizations are
• organizations where people continually expand
  their capacity to create the results they truly
  desire, where new and expansive patterns of
  thinking are nurtured, where collective
  aspiration is set free, and where people are
  continually learning to see the whole together.
• 5 Disciplines
• Systems thinking
• Personal mastery
• Mental models
• Building shared vision
• Team learning
• Read about Senges Learning Organizations _at_
  http//www.infed.org/thinkers/senge.htm

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If schools are to be effective learning
organizations, they must(Hoy Miskel, 2003, p.
33)

• Find ways to create structures that continuously
  support teaching learning and enhance
  organizational adaptation
• Develop organizational cultures and climates that
  are open, collaborative, and self regulating
• Attract individuals who are secure, efficacious,
  and open to change
• Prevent vicious and illegitimate politics from
  displaying the legitimate activities of learning
  and teaching.

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Mechanisms to create effective learning
organizations (Hoy Miskel, 2003, p. 33)

• Transformational leadership
• Open and continuous communication
• Shared decision making
• Challenge
• Create schools that have the capacity to respond
  effectively to not only contemporary problems,
  but also to new and emerging issues of school
  effectiveness.

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GONE -Traditional Concept of Administration

• Monocratic/Bureaucratic defined as a pyramidal,
  hierarchical structure in which all power for
  decision making flows from superordinate to
  subordinate

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Emerging Concept

• Pluralistic/Collegial
• Sharing of power to make policy and program
  decisions on a collegial basis
• Structure is still hierarchically, as in
  bureaucracy, to implement programs and policies,
  but is structured collegially on an egalitarian
  basis for making policy and program decisions

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Professional Learning Communities
What is a professional learning community?

• A focus on learning
• A collaborative culture with a focus on learning
  for all
• Collective inquiry into best practice and current
  reality

• Action orientation
• A commitment to continuous improvement
• Results orientation

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Clarifying Terminology

• Administration Broadest term related to
  organizational responsibility
• Management Focus is on efficient use of
  resources.
• Leadership Focus is on organizational direction
  and purpose.
• Authority Institutional power, or right to move
  other actors
• Because authority is backed by institutional
  power, it cannot be exercised effectively unless
  the person exercising authority is perceived by
  the members of the organization as having the
  right to do so.

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Power

• Definition The act of individuals going about
  the business of moving others to act
• Power over the group limits the potential
  accomplishments of the group
• Power with group (perceived) chief purpose is
  to enable the group to achieve its goals.

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• You are now ready to take quiz 3.