Exploring Marketing Research

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ExploringMarketing Research

• Chapter 10 3rd edition
• Prior text version Chapter 14 Scaling
• Attitudes, Intentions and Behavior

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A Model of Consumer Decision Making
Information in the environment
Interpretation Exposure,attention, and
comprehension
Memory Product knowledge and involvement
Consumer decision making
Knowledge, meanings and beliefs
Vs. Research 1st Behavior 2nd Product attitude
Integration Attitudes and intentions
Behavior
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Attitudes

• A learned predisposition to respond in a
  consistent manner to stimuli
• A learned mental state

Attitudes are Hypothetical Constructs
The term hypothetical construct describes a
concept that is not directly observable. (an
unobservable variable). Attitudes are often
indirectly measured by verbal/written expression
or overt behavior.
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Absolut vodkas clever ads have created
positive attitudes.
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Measuring Attitudes
Absolut Vodka
Extremely Unfavorable -3 -2 -1 0
1 2 3 Extremely Favorable
Dislike Very Much -3 -2 -1 0
1 2 3 Like Very Much
Very Bad -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
3 Very Good
(Hypothetical Construct)
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Components of an Attitude
Affective
Cognitive

• emotions toward an object
• Good-bad evals
• Like-dislike evaluations

• Knowledge beliefs about an object
• P(B) of existence

Attitude
Behavioral (conative)

• Predisposition to action
• Intentions

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Additional Components of an Attitude

• Attitude Centrality importance of the attitude
  , (Salience..)
• Frame of reference context of attitude
  solicitation
• Locus of control

Caution 80 20 principle (average attitude),
Research all relevant components
economic social societal
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Level of Attitude Precision/Sensitivity
Levels of attitude concept
Examples
Product class
Fast-food restaurants
Pizza restaurants
Product form
Hamburger restaurants
Burger King
McDonalds
Brand
Grant Street McDonalds
Model
McDonalds at Chester Mall
Eating lunch with friends at Grant Street
McDonalds
Eating dinner with kids at Grant Street McDonalds
Brand/model/ general situation
Eating dinner with kids at Grant Street
McDonalds after soccer game
Eating dinner with kids at Grant Street
McDonalds for a birthday party
Brand/model/ specific situation
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Bristol Myers Squibb has built considerable
brand equity.
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Techniques for Measuring Attitudes
Ranking - Rank in order of preference
Choice - Selection of preferred alternative
Rating - Estimates magnitude of a characteristic
Measuring Attitudes
Physiological, category scales
Sorting to arrange or classify concepts
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Measuring Attitudes

• Ranking - the respondents rank order a small
  number of stimuli on the basis of some
  characteristic ( e.g. overall performance)

• Rating - estimating the magnitude of a
  characteristic that an object possesses. The
  respondents checkmark on a scale(s) is their
  rating of the object.

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• Choice presents the respondent two or more
  alternatives - it is assumed that the chosen
  object is preferred over the other(s).

Product Preference Measure
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• Sorting Tasks
• Require that respondents indicate their attitudes
  by arranging items on the basis of perceived
  similarity or on some other attribute.
• Example Here is a list of several airlines.
  Here are ten cards. I would like you to put these
  cards in the pockets next to the airlines you
  would prefer to fly on your next trip. Assume
  that all of the airlines fly to wherever you
  would choose to travel. You can put as many cards
  as you want next to an airline, or you can put no
  cards next to an airline.
• Cards
• American Airlines _____ Delta
  Airlines _____
• United Airlines _____
  Southwest Airlines _____
• Northwest Airlines _____

• Sorting may also present the respondent with
  several concepts typed on cards - the respondent
  then arranges the cards into a number of piles or
  otherwise classifies the concepts

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Measuring Attitudes - Physiological

• Physiological measures also provide a means of
  measuring attitudes without subjective
  questioning. Measures are galvanic skin
  responses, blood pressure, pupil dilation, etc.

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Ethnographic Research (direct observation) in a
natural setting
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Attitude Rating Scales
Simple attitude scale (Two categories)

• requires that an individual agree-disagree with a
  statement or respond to a single question. This
  type of self-rating scale classifies respondents
  into one of two categories (e.g. yes or no).

Simplified Scaling Example (2 categories)
THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION _______
AGREE ______ DISAGREE

• Example Thurstone Scale - Judges assign scale
  values to attitudinal statements and subjects are
  asked to respond to these statements.
  
  

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Category Scale

• is a more sensitive measure than a two response
  scale as it has more response categories thus
  more information.
• Question wording is important .

How important were the following in your decision
to visit San Diego (check one for each
item) VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO IMPORTANT IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT CLIMATE ___________ ___________ _______
____ COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ______
_____ FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ____
_______ EDUCATIONAL/ HISTORICAL ASPECTS
_________ ___________ ___________
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Selected Category Scales
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Method of Summated Ratings The Likert Scale
(Rensis Likert, 1932)

• Respondents indicate their attitudes by checking
  how strongly they agree or disagree with
  statements.

Statement 1. Manipulating the availability
of a product is wrong. Strongly Disagree
uncertain Agree Strongly Disagree

Agree 1 2
3 4 5
Not sure- neutral
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• Semantic Differential Scale
• A series of seven-point rating scales with
  bipolar adjectives, such as good and bad,
  anchoring the ends (or poles) of the scale.
• A weight or score is assigned to each position on
  the scale. (7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 3, 2, 1,
  0, -1, -2, -3).
• Example Ao toward a supermarket

Exciting ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
___ Dull Low prices ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
___ ___ High prices Modern ___ ___ ___
___ ___ ___ ___ Old Fashioned Cluttered __
_ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Spacious
Pleasant ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Unpleasant
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Image Profile A graphic comparison of competing
brands
Source J. Richard Jones and Sheila I. Cocke, A
Performance Evaluation of Commuter Airlines The
Passengers View, Proceedings Transportation
Research Forum 22 (1981), p. 524. Reprinted with
permission.
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• Numerical Scales
• have numbers as response options to identify
  categories (response positions) rather than
  semantic space or verbal descriptions.
• a numerically labeled scale for intermediate
  points is as effective a measure as the true
  semantic differential.
• Example Now that youve had your automobile for
  about one year, please tell us how satisfied you
  are with your Ford Taurus.Extremely Dissatisfied
  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extremely Satisfied

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Stapel Scales

• Uses a single adjective as a substitute for the
  semantic differential when it is difficult to
  create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
• Tends to be easier to conduct and administer than
  a semantic differential scale.
• Example Measuring a Stores Image Store
  Name 3 2 1 ltWide Selectiongt -1 -2 -3Based
  on the strength of your belief, select a minus
  number if you disagree with the adjective, or
  select a positive number if you agree with the
  adjective.

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A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Stores Image
Occupies too much space
Verbose directions
Source Dennis Menezes and Norbert F. Elbert,
Alternative Semantic Scaling Formats for
Measuring Store Image An Evaluation, Journal of
Marketing Research, February 1979, pp. 8087.
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Attitude Rating Scales

• Constant-sum Scale
• Respondents are asked to divide a constant sum to
  indicate the relative importance of attributes
• Respondents often sort cards, but the task may
  also be a rating task (e.g., indicating brand
  preference).
• Example
• Divide 100 points among each of the following
  brands according to your preference for the
  brand
• Brand A _________
• Brand B _________
• Brand C _________

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Graphic Rating Scales
A Ladder Scale

• A measure of attitude that allows respondents to
  rate an object by choosing any point along a
  graphic continuum.
• Advantage flexibility to choose any interval
  desired for scoring purposes.
• Disadvantage there are no standard answers.

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Graphic Rating Scales Stress a Visual
(pictorial) Continuum
3 2
1 Very
Very Good Poor
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EXHIBIT 14.9 Summary of Advantages and
Disadvantages of Rating Scales
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Measuring Behavioral Intention

• Behavioral Component
• The behavioral expectations (expected future
  actions) of an individual toward an object.
• Buying intention a behavioral tendency, ex. to
  seek additional information, or plans to visit a
  showroom.
• Example
• How likely is it that you will purchase an mp3
  player?
• I definitely will buy
• I probably will buy
• I might buy
• I probably will not buy
• I definitely will not buy

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Measuring Behavioral Intention(s)

• Behavioral Differential
• Measures the behavioral intentions of subjects
  towards any object or category of objects.
• A description of the object to be judged is
  placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects
  indicate their behavioral intentions toward this
  object on a series of scales.
• Example A 25 year-old woman sales
  representativeWould ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
  ___ ___ Would Not
  ask this person for advice.

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• Paired Comparisons
• Respondents are presented with two objects and
  asked to pick the preferred object more than two
  objects may be presented, but comparisons are
  made in pairs.
• Ranking objects with respect to one attribute is
  not difficult if only a few products are
  compared, As the number of items increases, the
  number of comparisons increases geometrically
  (n(n -1)/2). If the number of comparisons is
  too great, respondents may fatigue and no longer
  carefully discriminate among them.
• ExampleI would like to know your overall
  opinion of two brands of adhesive bandages. They
  are MedBand and Super-Aid. Overall, which of
  these two brandsMedBand or Super-Aiddo you
  think is the better one? Or are both the same?
• MedBand is better _____
• Super-Aid is better _____
• They are the same _____

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Attitude Rating Scales Techniques

• Reverse Recoding
• A method of making sure all the items forming a
  composite scale are scored in the same direction.
• Negative items can be recoded into the equivalent
  responses for a non-reverse coded item.

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Attitude Rating Scales Techniques

• Composite Scale
• A way of representing a latent construct by
  summing or averaging respondents reactions to
  multiple items each assumed to indicate the
  latent construct.
• Item Analysis
• Ensures that final items evoke a wide response
  and discriminate among those subjects with
  positive and negative attitudes.
• Only a set of items showing good reliability and
  validity should be summed or averaged to form a
  composite scale representing a hypothetical
  construct.

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Randomized Response Questions

• Randomized Response Questions
• A research procedure used for dealing with
  sensitive topics, in which a random procedure
  (e.g., coin flip) determines which of two
  questions a respondent will be asked to answer.
• The method originally was applied in personal
  interview surveys. However, randomized response
  questions in a slightly modified format have been
  successfully applied in other situations.

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Monadic Rating Scale

• Monadic Rating Scale
• Asks about a single concept in isolation
• The respondent is not given a specific frame
• of reference
• Example

Now that youve had your automobile for about 1
year, please tell us how satisfied you are with
its engine power and pickup. Completely Very
Fairly Well Somewhat Very Satisfied Satisfied
Satisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied
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Selecting a Measurement Scale

• Comparative Rating Scale
• Asks respondents to rate a concept in comparison
  with a benchmark explicitly used as a frame of
  reference.
• Example

Please indicate how the amount of authority in
your present position compares with the amount of
authority that would be ideal for this
position. TOO MUCH ? ABOUT RIGHT ? TOO LITTLE ?
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Preparing a Measurement Scale

• Factors affecting the choice of using a single
  measure or an index measure
• The complexity of the issue to be investigated
• The number of dimensions the issue contains
• Whether individual attributes of the stimulus are
  part of a holistic attitude or are seen as
  separate items.
• The researchers conceptual (problem) definition
  will be helpful in making this choice.

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Selecting a Measurement Scale

• What Type of Category Labels, If Any?
• Verbal labels for response categories help
  respondents better understand the response
  positions.
• The maturity and educational levels of the
  respondents will influence the labeling decision.
• How Many Scale Categories or Response Positions?
• Five to eight points are optimal for sensitivity.
• The researcher must determine the number of
  positions that is best for the specific project.

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Selecting a Measurement Scale

• Balanced Rating Scale
• A fixed-alternative rating scale with an equal
  number of positive and negative categories a
  neutral point or point of indifference is at the
  center of the scale.
• Example

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Selecting a Measurement Scale

• Unbalanced Rating Scale
• has more response categories at one end of the
  scale than the other resulting in an unequal
  number of positive and negative categories.
• Example

End Loading, Neutral points , . .
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Selecting a Measurement Scale

• Forced-choice Rating Scale
• A fixed-alternative rating scale that requires
  respondents to choose one of the fixed
  alternatives.
• Non-forced Choice Scale
• A fixed-alternative rating scale that provides a
  no opinion category or that allows respondents
  to indicate that they cannot say which
  alternative is their choice.

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Preparing a Measurement Scale

• Some Practical Questions
• Is a ranking, sorting, rating, or choice
  technique best?
• Should a monadic or a comparative scale be used?
• What type of category labels, if any, will be
  used for the rating scale?
• How many scale categories or response positions
  are needed to accurately measure an attitude?
• Should a balanced or unbalanced rating scale be
  chosen?
• Should a scale that forces a choice among
  predetermined options be used?
• Should a single measure or an index measure be
  used?

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Average Deviation
Scale Interpretation T- Score Procedure
T 50 10 ( )
Sample Mean
Mean Squared Deviation
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Sample Standard Deviation
Sample Standard Deviation
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Attitude ScalingItem Analysis
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Attitude ScalingItem Analysis
Item Analysis to discriminate favorable
unfavorable attitudes
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Attitude ScalingItem Analysis
Include in the final scale, items with a
correlation of .7 or better (either or-). Thus,
items 1,3,4,7 and 8 are discriminators.
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Salient beliefs and Attitude
Salient beliefs about Crest
All beliefs about Crest

• Crest has fluoride
• Crest is approved by the
• American Dental Association
• Crest has mint flavor
• Crest comes in a gel
• Crest is made by Procter
• Gamble
• Crest has a red, white, and
• blue package
• Crest prevents cavities
• Crest freshens breath
• Crest gets teeth clean
• Crest comes in tubes
• Crest comes in a pump
• container
• Crest is more expensive than
• store brands
• Crest is what my parents use
• Crest has a tartar-control

• Crest has fluoride
• Crest has mint flavor
• Crest comes in a gel
• Crest comes in a pump
• container
• Crest has a tartar-control
• formula

Attitude toward Crest
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Salient beliefs and Attitude
Freshens breath
Has mint flavor
Tastes good
Has fluoride
Prevents cavities
Comes in a gel
Has a red, white, and blue package
Is made by Procter Gamble
Crest
Comes in a pump
Approved by the American Dental Association
No mess
Has a tartar-control formula
Is what my parents use
Comes in tubes
Is more expensive than store brands
Gets teeth clean
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Salient beliefs and Attitude
Has mint flavor
Has fluoride
Comes in a gel
Crest
Comes in a pump
Has a tartar-control formula
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Multi-attribute Attitude Model
No caffeine
b1 10
e1 3
b2 5
7UP
All natural ingredients
Ao 27
e2 1
b3 8
Lemon-lime flavor
Ao (b x e)
e3 -1
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Multi-attribute Attitude Model
No calories
b1 6
e1 2
Diet Pepsi
b2 6
Caffeine
e2 -3
Ao 4
b3 10
Cola flavor
e3 1
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The ei Component
Sodas that have no caffeine
Very Bad -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
3 Very Good
Sodas with natural ingredients
Very Bad -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
3 Very Good
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A Model of Behavioral Intention
The persons beliefs that the behavior leads to
certain outcomes and his evaluations of these
outcomes
Attitude towardthe behavior
Relativeimportance ofattitudinal
andnormativeconsideration
Behavior
Intention
The persons beliefs that specific individuals or
groups think he should or should not perform
thebehavior and hismotivation to complywith
the specific referents
Subjectivenorm
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Of each 100 persons who stated a definite
intention to buy a (brand) appliance.
68 bought the brand intended 32 changed brands
44 bought the appliance 56 did not buy the
appliance
Brand A
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Factors that weaken the relationship between
intention and behavior
Different levels of specificity
Unforeseen event
Intervening time
Unforeseen environmental context
Degree of voluntary control
New information
Instability of intentions
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Flows of influence in social environment
The Salient Norms component influences most
brand choices.