Theoretical Underpinnings for PR

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Chapter 6

• Theoretical Underpinnings for PR

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Objectives

• To understand that theories are just that, and
  not principles.
• To learn what theories might apply to particular
  PR situations
• To test theories in PR practice to refine
  theoretical models.
• To realize that PR functions in organizational
  structures and particular communication
  environments, and depends on volunteer readers,
  viewers, participants.

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PR Theory

• Borrowed from
• Organizational and management theory
• Political theory
• Communication theory
• Persuasion theory
• All have roots in sociology and psychology with
  some connection to even math, biology and physics

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Four Sociological Theories

• Help us understand how people respond to mass and
  specialized communication
• Structural functionalism
• Evolutionary perspective
• Social conflict
• Symbolic interactionism

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Five Psychological Approaches

• Often used in studies on the effects of mass
  communication
• Neurobiological
• Comparative
• Behavioral
• Psychoanalytic
• Cognitive

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Two Persuasion Models

• Help us to understand how people interpret
  messages
• Sociocultural paradigm
• Psychodynamic

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Organizational Theory

• Based on general systems theory Parts of system
  are interrelated function as a whole that is
  greater than the sum of its parts
• Theoretical concept can be found in works of
  Hegel
• Cultural approach looks at development, impact of
  organizations culture
• Critical approach examines sources of power and
  control in an organization
• Postmodern approach focuses on post 1960s

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Communication and Behavioral Theory

• Behavioral models, theories replacing
  communication models and theories as core
  underpinning of PR
• Behavioral model suggests PR is social science
• Behavioral model suggests PR communication must
  focus on direct, personal and not mass appeals
• Behavioral model shifts objective and focus away
  from communication models emphasis on creating
  or retaining awareness to creating and retaining
  a behavioral response
• Behavioral model really asymmetrical even though
  PR best practices are symmetrical

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Winning People Over

• Three basic ways to get people to do what you
  want
• Power Use authority, implied or overt threat of
  compulsion
• Patronage As crude as bribery, as delicate as
  celebrity endorsement
• Persuasion Using communication to win people over

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Steps in Persuasion Process

• Presenting
• Attending
• Comprehending
• Yielding
• Retaining
• Acting

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PR and Persuasion

• Frequently used to change opinions
• Most critical factor in opinion change is
  information or the lack thereof
• Critical how information is presented or withheld
• Access to information and selective use of it
  combines tools of power and persuasion

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Personal Persuaders

• Organizations and significant others who exercise
  leverage over others
• Involves recognition and acceptance of their
  authority

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Impersonal Persuaders

• Less potent and influential than personal
  persuaders
• Mass media editorials and advertisements
• Information disseminated by educational and
  government institutions
• Content of entertainment

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Opinion Makers and News Managers

• May be someone who creates an event that becomes
  news when it happens and is covered
• May be someone who focuses media attention on an
  event that might be otherwise overlooked

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Propaganda and Persuasion Appeals

• Name calling
• Glittering generalities
• Transfer
• Testimonials
• Plain folks
• Bandwagon
• Card stacking
• Emotional stereotypes
• Illicit silence
• Subversive rhetoric

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Propaganda

• Not necessarily negative
• Nothing inherent about propaganda that prevents
  it from being used to change attitudes and
  behavior constructively
• Propagandists try to teach people what to think,
  while educators try to each people how to think

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Cantrils Laws

• Events affect opinion
• Demands for action are a common response once
  opinion is formed
• People will become involved out of self interest
• People seek leaders for issues around which
  opinion develops
• Reliability is difficult to assess

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Cialdinis Self-Persuasion Elements

• Consistency Once they commit to a position,
  people are more likely to perform behaviors
  consistent with that position
• Draws on Festingers theory of cognitive
  dissonance
• Draws on Rokeachs theory of beliefs, attitudes
  and values
• Reciprocity People are influenced by a sense
  that they owe or are beholden to others
• Social validation People are more influenced to
  behave in a certain way

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Cialdinis Self-Persuasion Elements (cont.)

• Authority People are more willing to follow the
  suggestions of someone considered a legitimate
  authority
• Scarcity People want items and opportunities
  that are viewed as scarce or dwindling

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Earl Newsoms Persuasion Principles

• Identification People will relate to an idea or
  opinion if they see it having a direct effect on
  them
• Suggestion of action People will respond to
  ideas that are accompanied by a proposed action
  by the sponsor of the idea or if the recipients
  themselves propose it

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Earl Newsoms Persuasion Principles (cont.)

• Familiarity and trust People are unwilling to
  accept ideas from sources if they dont trust or
  know them
• Clarity People need to clearly understand the
  meaning of an idea before they can be persuaded
  to accept it

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Opinion Leaders

• Vocal activists
• Opinion leaders, both mass media and individuals
• Power leaders Government officials, legislators,
  others who have power to take actions
• Increasingly it is the power leaders who have the
  most influence

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Persuasion Strategies

• Stimulus-response
• Cognitive
• Motivational
• Social appeal
• Personality appeal

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Impediments to Persuasion

• Cognitive dissonance could occur Sometimes less
  social persuasion produced more attitude change
  because people feel they have freely chosen a
  particular opinion or behavior
• Truth is personal Much truth is
  circumstantial, subjective so the same truth
  may be interpreted differently by different
  individuals

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Media Theories

• Lasswells Theory Who says what in which
  channels to whom with what effect
• Ignores feedback
• Source is the who
• Credibility, expertise generally important
• People tend to believe sources that are like them
  or who they want to be like
• People also tend to seek authority in sources
• Source characteristics can be negated if a
  message lacks quality, plausibility

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Media Theories (cont.)

• Messages are the what
• The content has consequences
• So does the way it is presented (telling both
  sides, linking the familiar to the unfamiliar)
• Repetition generally increases learning
• Always tell people what they are expected to
  think or do
• Present something of value to the public and be
  compatible with the publics mindset
• Each message needs a purpose

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Media Theories (cont.)

• Each message should appeal to some need or
  interest in the audience such as Maslows
  hierarchy of needs
• Physical needs
• Safety
• Love
• Self-esteem
• Self-actualization

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Media Theories (cont.)

• Each message needs texture Color, design,
  movement, sound that appeal to the intended
  audience
• Message language must mean the same thing to the
  audience as it does to the source, and must have
  maximum impact on the viewer or listener no
  jargon, maximum clarity, maximum emotional impact
• Messages are increasingly globally accessible,
  cultural considerations, different values
  increasingly important

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Media Theories (cont.)

• Media are the channels
• Complexity of message influences choice Print
  handles complexity best, video is best for simple
  messages
• Some messages involve their audiences more
  Computers interactively involve, TV passively
  involves
• Media orientation of public is most critical
  factor to consider in choosing a channel Uses
  and gratifications research is essential
• Knowing not just who receives the channel but who
  pays attention to it and remembers it is
  important
• Knowing which channels are considered credible
  also should be a factor in choosing the right
  medium

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Media Theories (cont.)

• Receivers are the to whom
• Sometimes messages must be adjusted to minimize
  differences between the source and receivers
• If messages are tuned out they are not really
  received
• Messages must be encoded into something
  personally meaningful to an intended receiver
• Distortions, distractions, noise must be taken
  into account
• Symbols must be chosen carefully to be sure they
  have intended meaning to the receivers
• Receiver stereotypes must be taken into account
  both in terms of how they influence encoding and
  decoding of messages

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Media Theories (cont.)

• Response to a message is the with what effect
• How people respond is a function of anticipation,
  expectations and assumptions
• Comprehension and acceptance of messages must
  occur before a receiver can fashion a response
• Some receivers will respond to group dynamics in
  fashioning their response
• Others will strive to reduce discrepancies or
  cognitive dissonance
• Some people take behavior cues from external
  causes, while others respond to internal causes
• All opinions, attitudes and actions are affected
  by family, friends, informal work groups and
  formal groups, so no message works in isolation
  from these influences

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Models of Information Processing

• Information processing is so critical in
  communication, especially models that predict
  behavior successfully are especially useful in a
  public relations communications campaign
• Grunigs model of publics and how they seek and
  process information is significant
• Publics range from active to inactive, and their
  behavior ranges from seeking information to just
  processing it

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Models of Information Processing (cont.)

• Individuals are more likely to seek and process
  information if they think it will help them solve
  a problem and if they are personally involved
• Those who are constrained are less likely to
  either seek or process information

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Diffusion Cycle

• Awareness (presenting)
• Information( attending)
• Evaluation (comprehending)
• Trial (yielding)
• Adoption (retaining)
• Reinforcement ( retaining)