What is language

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What is language?
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Topics this lecture will cover

• Views of language
• Saussures view of linguistics
• Hocketts design features of language
• Chomskys view of linguistics
• Aspects of linguistic structure
• Sound structure (phonology)
• Syntactic structure and meaning
• Language as a mental phenomenon

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Topics this lecture will cover

• Views of language
• Saussure view of linguistics
• Hocketts design features of language
• Chomskys view of linguistics
• Aspects of linguistic structure
• Sound structure (phonology)
• Syntactic structure and meaning
• Language as a mental phenomenon

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Saussure (1916)complementary facets of language
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Saussure (1916)complementary facets of language

• Language involves both the perception and the
  articulation of speech sounds

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Saussure (1916)complementary facets of language

• Language is the perception and articulation of
  speech sounds
• Language is the pairing of speech sounds with
  ideas (the definition of a sign)

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Saussure (1916)complementary facets of language

• Language is the perception and articulation of
  speech sounds
• Language is the pairing of speech sounds with
  ideas (the definition of a sign)
• Language is both psychological and social

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Saussure (1916)complementary facets of language

• Language is the perception and articulation of
  speech sounds
• Language is the pairing of speech sounds with
  ideas (the definition of a sign)
• Language is both psychological and social
• A language is a stable system, but it has a
  history and it changes

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Saussures vision of linguistics
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Saussures vision of linguistics

• Linguistics should focus on the structure of
  language, not on its history, and not on speech

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Saussures vision of linguistics

• Linguistics should focus on the structure of
  language, not on its history, and not on speech
• Linguistics is a part of a general theory of
  signs called semiology

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Saussures vision of linguistics

• Linguistics should focus on the structure of
  language, not on its history, and not on speech
• Linguistics is a part of a general theory of
  signs called semiology (or semiotics)
• Linguists should define what makes language a
  special kind of sign system

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The arbitrariness of the sign
cow
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The arbitrariness of the sign
la vache
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Topics this lecture will cover

• Views of language
• Saussure view of linguistics
• Hocketts design features of language
• Chomskys view of linguistics
• Aspects of linguistic structure
• Sound structure (phonology)
• Syntactic structure and meaning
• Language as a mental phenomenon

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Hockett (1960)Design features of language

• Vocal-auditory channel (also manual-visual
  channel)
• Broadcast transmission and directional reception
• Rapid fading
• Interchangeability All uses can create and
  receive all signals

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Hockett (1960)Design features of language (cont.)

• Semanticity elements of language refer to
  aspects of the world
• Arbitrariness there is not natural relation
  between a linguistic form and a meaningit is a
  matter of social convention
• Total feedback Users can perceive what they
  produce
• Specialization Language is specifically for
  communication

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Hockett (1960)Design features of language (cont.)

• Discreteness Speech can analyzed into a finite
  set of contrasting sound elements
• Displacement People can talk about things that
  are displaced in space and time
• Productivity We can use language to say things
  that have never been said before
• Traditional transmission Specific language
  systems must be learned from others

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Hockett (1960)Design features of language (cont.)

• Duality of patterning There are separate systems
  for creating speech sounds and for combining
  meaningful elements
• Reflexivity We can use language to talk about
  language
• Prevarication We can deceive others with
  language

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Topics this lecture will cover

• Views of language
• Saussure view of linguistics
• Hocketts design features of language
• Chomskys view of linguistics
• Aspects of linguistic structure
• Sound structure (phonology)
• Syntactic structure and meaning
• Language as a mental phenomenon

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Chomsky (1957, 1965, etc.)Theory of generative
grammar
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Chomsky (1957, 1965, etc.)Theory of generative
grammar

• Focuses on syntactic structure (how words are put
  together to form sentences)

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Chomsky (1957, 1965, etc.)Theory of generative
grammar

• Focuses on syntactic structure (how words are put
  together to form sentences)
• Focuses explicitly on the mental capacity that
  allows humans to do this

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Chomsky (1957, 1965, etc.)Theory of generative
grammar

• Focuses on syntactic structure (how words are put
  together to form sentences)
• Focuses explicitly on the mental capacity that
  allows humans to do this
• Models the mental capacity with a system of
  explicit rules

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Chomsky (1957, 1965, etc.)Theory of generative
grammar

• Focuses on syntactic structure (how words are put
  together to form sentences)
• Focuses explicitly on the mental capacity that
  allows humans to do this
• Models the mental capacity with a system of
  explicit rules
• Claims that important aspects of the mental
  capacity are innate

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Topics this lecture will cover

• Views of language
• Saussure view of linguistics
• Hocketts design features of language
• Chomskys view of linguistics
• Aspects of linguistic structure
• Sound structure (phonology)
• Syntactic structure and meaning

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Topics this lecture will cover

• Views of language
• Saussure view of linguistics
• Hocketts design features of language
• Chomskys view of linguistics
• Aspects of linguistic structure
• Sound structure (phonology)
• Syntactic structure and meaning
• Language as a mental phenomenon

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Aspects of sound structure
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Aspects of sound structure

• Humans are able to distinguish many different
  speech sounds (phones)

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Aspects of sound structure

• Humans are able to distinguish many different
  speech sounds (phones)
• Each language has a set speech sound categories
  that are used to make distinctions between words
  (phonemes)

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Aspects of sound structure

• Humans are able to distinguish many different
  speech sounds (phones)
• Each language has a set speech sound categories
  that are used to make distinctions between words
  (phonemes)
• Phonemes themselves have no meaning

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Aspects of sound structure

• Humans are able to distinguish many different
  speech sounds (phones)
• Each language has a set speech sound categories
  that are used to make distinctions between words
  (phonemes)
• Phonemes themselves have no meaning
• Phonemes are grouped together into syllables

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Aspects of sound structure

• Humans are able to distinguish many different
  speech sounds (phones)
• Each language has a set speech sound categories
  that are used to make distinctions between words
  (phonemes)
• Phonemes themselves have no meaning
• Phonemes are grouped together into syllables
• Syllables participate in patterns that are
  independent of phonemes (e.g. stress alternation
  and intonation contours)

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Topics this lecture will cover

• Views of language
• Saussure view of linguistics
• Hocketts design features of language
• Chomskys view of linguistics
• Aspects of linguistic structure
• Sound structure (phonology)
• Syntactic structure and meaning
• Language as a mental phenomenon

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Basic elements of syntax

• Linear order of symbolic elements
• Categories of symbolic elements
• Recursion

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Basic elements of syntax

• Linear order of symbolic elements
• Categories of symbolic elements
• Recursion

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Linear order consistently used to encode meaning
differences

• Patterns in English
• Agent-Act (intransitive)
• Agent-Act-Patient (transitive)

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Basic elements of syntax

• Linear order of symbolic elements
• Categories of symbolic elements
• Recursion

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Categories of symbolic elements

• Word combinations express propositions
• Propositions involve
• Identifying something (reference)
• Saying something about it (predication)

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Categories of symbolic elements

• Nouns are associated with the function of
  reference
• Verbs are associated with the function of
  predication
• All languages make this basic distinction among
  their symbolic elements

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Categories of symbolic elements

• English words fall into many grammatical
  categories
• Nouns Conjunctions
• Verbs Articles
• Adjectives etc.
• Adverbs
• Prepositions

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Categories of symbolic elements

• Grammatical categories are ultimately not
  semantically based
• Nouns that are not objects kiss, song, game,
  etc.
• Verbs that are not actions like, resemble, have,
  etc.

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Basic elements of syntax

• Linear order of symbolic elements
• Categories of symbolic elements
• Recursion

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Recursion

• Sentences can occur as parts of other sentences
• This gives language much of its amazing
  creativity

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Recursion

• Sentential complements
• I think that we should begin.
• Relative clauses
• I like the book that I read.
• Subordinate clauses
• Ill stop when you stop.

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Less basic elements of syntax

• Constituent structure
• Predicate-argument structure

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Less basic elements of syntax

• Constituent structure
• Predicate-argument structure

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Constituent structure

• Phrases Intermediate levels of structure between
  words and sentences
• Phrases are built around major word classes (Noun
  and Noun Phrase, Verb and Verb Phrase, etc.)

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Constituent structure

• Generalizations about word order in the worlds
  languages are really generalizations about phrase
  order
• Syntactic rules build phrases and, ultimately,
  sentences

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S The people in the
room will move the
desk S ---gt NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N
(PP) PP ---gt Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S The people in the
room will move the
desk S ---gt NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N
(PP) PP ---gt Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
The people in the room will
move the desk S ---gt
NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt
Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP The people
in the room will move the
desk S ---gt NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art)
N (PP) PP ---gt Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP The
people in the room will
move the desk S ---gt NP AUX
VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt Prep NP VP
---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP The people in the room
will move the desk S
---gt NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP
---gt Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP
Art N The people in the
room will move the
desk S ---gt NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N
(PP) PP ---gt Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP
Art N
Art N The people in the room will
move the desk S ---gt
NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt
Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP
Art N
Art N The people in the room will
move the desk S ---gt
NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt
Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP
Art N
Art N The people in the room will
move the desk S ---gt
NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt
Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP
Art N
Art N The people in the room will
move the desk S ---gt
NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt
Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)

• Linear Order
• Grammatical Categories
• Constituent Structure

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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP
Art N
Art N The people in the room will
move the desk S ---gt
NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt
Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)

• Linear Order
• Grammatical Categories
• Constituent Structure

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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP
Art N
Art N The people in the room will
move the desk S ---gt
NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt
Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)

• Linear Order
• Grammatical Categories
• Constituent Structure

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Predicate-argument structure

• Some of the work of syntactic rules has been
  taken over by individual predicating words (like
  verbs)
• Only certain verbs fit certain syntactic
  structures, so we can let verbs tell the syntax
  what structure they need.

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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP
Art N
Art N The people in the room will
move the desk S ---gt
NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt
Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V NP
Prep NP
Art N
Art N The people in the room will
cry the desk S ---gt
NP AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt
Prep NP VP ---gt V (NP)
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S NP AUX
VP
Article N PP
V
Prep NP

Art N The people in the room will
cry S ---gt NP
AUX VP NP ---gt (Art) N (PP) PP ---gt Prep NP
VP ---gt V (NP)
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Predicate-argument structure

• Intransitive NP V dance, laugh
• Transitive NP V NP eat, see
• Directional NP V (Path) go, run
• Co-directional NP V NP (Path) chase, follow
• Transfer NP V NP PP-to
• NP V NP NP give, send
• Propositional NP V (that) S think, say
• Directive NP V NP to VP tell, order

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Predicate-argument structure

• The syntactic patterns that verbs occur in are
  partly determined by their meanings
• Verbs with similar meanings often occur in the
  same patterns

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NP laugh

hahaha
box
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NP eat NP

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Predicate-argument structure

• Some syntactic patterns occur in alternate forms
  with nearly identical meanings (valence
  alternations)
• Words that occur in both patterns are often very
  similar in meaning

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NP give NP to NP

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NP give NP NP

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NP ____NP to NPNP ____NP NP give send hand pa
ss fax mail

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Semantic roles and linking

• NP ____NP to NP
• Giver Gift Recipient
• NP ____NP NP

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Thematic roles and linking

• NP ____NP to NP
• Agent Theme Goal
• NP ____NP NP

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Predicate-argument structure

• Syntactic cues help to identify who the
  participants are in a described scenario
• In English this is done through word order and
  preposition choice
• In other languages this is done through
  morphology (e.g. case markers on NPs)

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Topics this lecture will cover

• Views of language
• Saussure view of linguistics
• Hocketts design features of language
• Chomskys view of linguistics
• Aspects of linguistic structure
• Sound structure (phonology)
• Syntactic structure and meaning
• Language as a mental phenomenon

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Language as a mental phenomenon
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Language as a mental phenomenon

• Linguistic knowledge is not conscious knowledge,
  but it is not just knowing how

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Language as a mental phenomenon

• Linguistic knowledge is not conscious knowledge,
  but it is not just knowing how
• The structures in linguistic models (phonemes,
  grammatical categories, constituent structure,
  etc.) are not representations the same way
  pictures and symbols are representations

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Language as a mental phenomenon

• Linguistic knowledge is not conscious knowledge,
  but it is not just knowing how
• The structures in linguistic models (phonemes,
  grammatical categories, constituent structure,
  etc.) are not representations the same way
  pictures and symbols are representations
• It should be possible to model these structures
  neurally, because they must exist in the brain

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Summary of topics

• Views of language
• Saussure view of linguistics
• Hocketts design features of language
• Chomskys view of linguistics
• Aspects of linguistic structure
• Sound structure (phonology)
• Syntactic structure and meaning
• Language as a mental phenomenon

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THE END