Putting Error Correction into Proper Perspective

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Putting Error Correction into Proper Perspective

• Georgette Ioup
• Department of English
• University of New Orleans

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Changing Theories of Language teaching

• Stage 1 Grammar Translation
• Stage 2 Audio Lingual Method (ALM)
• Stage 3 a.Communicative Competence
• (W. Rivers, 1968)
• b. L1 Acq. L2 Acq.
• (Dulay Burt, 1974)

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Krashens Monitor Model

• Five Hypotheses
• Acquisition / Learning Hypothesis
• Natural Order Hypothesis
• Monitor Hypothesis
• Input Hypothesis
• Affective Filter Hypothesis

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Acquisition / Learning

• Acquisition Subconscious processes
• Learning Conscious formal knowledge

Formal Learning Learned Grammar Monitor
Natural Input Acquired Grammar Language Output
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Input Hypothesis

• Relates to Acquisition only.
• We acquire by receiving Comprehensible input
  input that is a little beyond our current level.
• Current Level i
• Comprehensible Input - i 1

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Critical Responses to Krashens Theory

• Higgs Clifford, 1982
• A. Terminal 2s
• Street learners with uncorrected errors
• B. Advocates accuracy first
• (See also, Valette, 1991)

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Critical Responses to Krashens Theory

• White, 1987
• Certain types of errors need rule instruction.
• L1 French L2 English
• 1. Mary studied the lesson carefully
• 2. Carefully Mary studied the lesson
• 3. Mary studied carefully the lesson

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Critical Responses to Krashens Theory

• Long, 1991
• Focus on Form, not Focus on Forms
• Focus on Forms Teaching isolated rules
• Focus on Form teaching rules in context

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Critical Responses to Krashens Theory

• Ellis, 1990
• Forms that contribute little to communication
  tend to be ignored. They need attention.

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Critical Responses to Krashens Theory

• Schmidt, 1994
• Must notice the gap.
• When there is a discrepancy between a TL form and
  an IL form, adults wont notice it unless
  attention is drawn to it.

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In Support of Krashens Theory

• VanPatten, 1988
• No evidence that terminal learners are
  terminal.
• Early focus on grammar will inhibit developing
  fluency.

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In Support of Krashens Theory

• Schwartz, 1993
• LAD can only accept natural input
• Includes syntactic rules of Universal Grammar
• Excludes morphology and lexicon
• These two can be learned formally.

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In Support of Krashens Theory

• Paradis, 1994
• Explicit Knowledge -gt Declarative Memory
• Consciously accessible knowledge
• Facts and Concepts
• Ex Formal knowledge of grammar rules

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In Support of Krashens Theory

• Paradis, 1994
• Implicit Knowledge -gt Procedural Memory
• Information derived unconsciously
• Skills and Processes
• Ex Natural language acquisition

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In Support of Krashens Theory

• Paradis, 1994
• Declarative memory cannot translate into
  procedural memory.
• Each uses a different part of the brain.

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Sounding Alarms

• The American Scene
• Valette, 1991, Modern Language Journal
• The level of foreign language proficiency has
  deteriorated in the last 25 years. The median
  proficiency score for foreign language majors is
  now probably no higher than 1.
• Two causes contact with inaccurate models and
  the acceptance (or non-correction) of inaccurate
  speech production.

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Sounding Alarms

• The British Scene
• Mitchell, 2000, Applied Linguistics
• Grenfell (1999) has documented current
  disillusionment and uncertainty among the MFL
  professional community in England with the
  present National Curriculum/GCSE framework.
• despite the focus on communication, a
  disappointing proportion of pupils are making the
  transition to creative control of the TL system.

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Research Comparing Implicit and Explicit Language
Teaching

• Scott, 1989
• Explicit condition performed better
• Alenan, 1995
• The groups who received rules performed better
• Robinson, 1995
• Instructed groups better on easy rules
• VanPatten Oikkenon, 1996
• Explicit rule group did worse
• Conflicting results could be due to monitoring

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Research on Error Correction in Writing

• It is effective improves writing proficiency
• Cardell Carno (1982)
• It gives no advantage over no correction
• Fathman Walley (1990)
• It is ineffective doesnt improve writing
  proficiency
• Kepner (1991)
• Semke (1984)
• It impedes proficiency development
• Sheppard (1992)

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Research on Error Correction in Writing

• Truscott, 1996
• A. Agrees with Krashen and Schwartz
• According to learning theory, structures learned
  through error correction cant become part of the
  internal grammar.
• B. Advocates an end to grammar correction in
  writing
• It is ineffective and harmful.

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Research on Error Correction in Writing

• Ferris (1999)
• Argues for a role for grammar correction.
• Claims studies are inclusive.
• Truscotts radical stance is premature.

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Weakness in Focus-on-Form Research

• My problem with focus-on-form studies
• They cover a short period of time.
• Similar view expressed in
• DeKeyser, 1977

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Two Questions

• Can formal instruction help, if formal learning
  cannot become part of the acquired grammar?
• Why might it take a long time for the formal
  learning to become effective?

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Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

• Paradis (1994), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002)
• Explicit Knowledge -gt Declarative Memory
• Consciously accessible knowledge
• Facts and Concepts
• Ex Formal knowledge of grammar rules

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Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

• Paradis (1994), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002)
• Implicit Knowledge -gt Procedural Memory
• Information derived unconsciously
• Skills and Processes
• Ex Natural language acquisition

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Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

• Paradis (1994), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002)
• Declarative memory cannot translate into
  procedural memory.
• Each uses a different part of the brain.

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Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

• Anderson (1995), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn
  (2002),
• Paradis (1994)
• Each time one uses a metalinguistic declarative
  rule,
• One simultaneously builds unconscious, implicit
  procedural knowledge.

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Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

• Hulstijn, 2002
• Metalinguistic knowledge doesnt actually
  transform into implicit knowledge.
• An implicit network that is separate from and in
  addition to the explicit system is independently
  constructed.

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Answer to Question 2Why might it take a long
time?

• McLaughlin (1990), DeKeyser (2001)
• Complex skills start as controlled processes.
  Given
• Time
• Attention
• They become automatic routines.
• It is practice which accomplishes this.

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Answer to Question 2Why might it take a long
time?

• Shriffrin Schneider, 1986
• The development of automaticity for generalized
  skills depends on high levels of practice.
• McLaughlin, 1990
• A skill must be practiced again and again and
  again, until no attention is required for
  performance.

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Answer to Question 2Why might it take a long
time?

• Anderson, 1995
• A second factor is important for automaticity
  feedback.

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My Study

• Jenny
• Immigrated to the U.S. at age 10
• Mainstreamed into regular classes, no ESL
• Entered university at age 19
• Many fossilized grammar errors
• Required to take ESL classes
• Needed 7 semesters plus one summer tutoring to
  destabilize her errors
• I argue that rule isolation and error correction
  destabilized her fossilized structures

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Type of Instruction Given

• Some formal rule presentation
• Consistent feedback on errors in written work
• Revision with error correction required

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Two Contributions that Instruction Provided

• Made her aware of which forms were incorrect
• Gave her the necessary practice to change her
  grammar

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Table 1 Proficiency Scores on Initial Placement
and End of Semester Exams
MTAC MTELP COMP
Initial Placement 88 85 58
Intensive 90 86 78
Nonintensive I
Time 1 87 88 81
Time 2 92 87 81
Time 3 90 81 85
Nonintensive 2
Time 1 87 89 89
Time 2 93 89 87
Time 3 90 90 88
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Figure 1. T-unit analyses of 200-word samples at
3 different levels.
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Figure 2. Mean percent of error-free T-units per
sample at 3 different levels.
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Table 2Comparison of Selected Errors by Level
Prep Tense Article Verb Form Plural-s
Entry 4 18 19 15 9
Midway 1 4 6 4 6
Exit 4 2 1 6 4
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Persistent Errors

• Because of S
• Because of my fathers restaurant short of
  hand.
• Make Infinitive
• made the car to go in reverse
• Finally eradicated at exit level

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Conclusion

• Focus-on-form combined with abundant
  contextualized practice and feedback can aid a
  communicative learning approach.