Title: WHY ARE YOU HERE
1WHY ARE YOU HERE?
- ?You Do Not Need This Training Course if you
work in / with - Housekeeping
- X-RAY OR FLUOROSCOPE
- ANIMALS OR PEOPLE WITH FDG or PET ISOTOPES
- IRRADIATOR ACCESS
- OTHER- ASK Trainer which course you need
- ?YOU SHOULD Attend This Training Course IF
- You work in a lab with RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
2Radiation Safety Trainingfor Laboratory
WorkersGA DNR 391-3-17-.07(3), Instructions
to Workers
2
3Radiation Safety Staff Members
- Stan Wilson, Radiation Safety Officer -727-0729
- Ike Hall, Assoc. RSO Emory University Hospital
- Browen Krans
- Steve Grimm, Assoc. RSO Crawford Long Hospital
- Fran Dickens, Assoc. RSO Lab coordinator, PET,
Increased Controls - Chris Vanderpool Inspections, Training, GM
Calibrations - Andy Cohen Inspections, Training, EHS Assist
- Aisha Ridley Inspections, Requisitions,
Environmental - Mishari Hanible Inspections, Waste,
Environmental - Visit our website www.esho.emory.edu for contact
information -
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4Topics
- Basic Information about Radiation and
Radioactivity - Radiation Protection Principles
- How to have a successful Radiation Safety Audit
- Administrative Controls
- Instrumentation Spills
5Handouts
- Laboratory Worker Training Manual
- Personnel History Form
- Isotope Data Sheets
- Test
- Training Evaluation
6Atomic Structure
Protons 11p (1.007276 amu)
Neutrons 10n (1.008665 amu)
Electrons (0.0005486 amu)
Neon-20 2010Ne (19.992434 amu)
7Nucleus of the Atom
- The nucleus contains protons and neutrons
- All atoms of the same element contain the same
number of protons - Isotopes of an element can have differing numbers
of neutrons - Isotopes having a nearly equal number of protons
and neutrons are most likely to be stable
8Nuclear Shorthand and Definitions
- Mass Number (A) Protons Neutrons
- Atomic Number (Z) Protons
- (the atomic number defines the element)
- A X
- Z
- Nuclide Atom characterized by atomic number and
mass unit - Isotope Nuclides of an element with the same
atomic number (number of protons) but differing
numbers of neutrons
9Radioactivity
- Definition
- process by which energetic atoms spontaneously
transform into different atoms emit radiation
in attempt to become stable - 2-step process of decay / disintegration
- transformation inside the nucleus
- radiation emitted in one or several forms
- Alpha particles / Beta particles / Gamma rays
10Types of Ionizing Radiation Alpha, Beta,
Gamma
Alpha Particle
Large Mass (nuclei) Helium Atom with a 2 charge
Beta Particle
Small Mass - Electron (subatomic particle)
11Alpha Particles
- Composed of 2 protons, 2 neutrons, has no
electrons - Has a positive 2 (2) electrical charge
- Travels only inch or two in air
- Easily shielded with paper or dead layer of skin
12Alpha Decay
- In alpha decay, atom loses two neutrons and two
protons and becomes another element - 226Ra ? 222Rn 4a
88 86 2
13Beta Particles
- Identical to an electron
- Has a negative one (-1) electrical charge
- 7200 times less massive than an alpha particle
- Travels several feet in air
- Easily shielded by clothing, a few sheets of
cardboard, or Plexiglas
14Beta Decay
- Beta decay occurs when there are too many
neutrons in the nucleus of the atom - A neutron ejects a negative beta particle and
becomes a proton - 32P ? 32S 0e-1
- 15 16
- Positron Particles or Positive Beta Particle
- Identical to an electron
- Has a positive (1) electrical charge
15Positron Decay
- Occurs when there are too many protons in the
nucleus - A proton ejects a positive electron or positron
and becomes a neutron -
- 18F ? 18O 0e1 0e-1 0e1 ? ??
- 9 8
0.511?
16Gamma Rays
- Electromagnetic radiation having no mass and no
electrical charge - Ejected from the nucleus of the atom
- Travel at the speed of light
- Shielded by dense materials such as lead or
tungsten
17Gamma Decay
- Gamma given off when parent isotope needs to
remove extra energy - Gamma often accompany other processes of decay,
such as alpha and beta -
- 99m Tc ? 99 Tc ?
- 42 42
18Elements and Isotopes
Periodic Table of Elements
Chart of the Nuclides
19Penetrating Power of Radiations
Lead
Paper
Plastic
??????
Alpha
?????
Beta
Gamma and X-rays
???
20Radioactivity Units
- 1 Curie (Ci) 3.7x1010 dps
- or 2.22 x 1012 dpm
- 1 millicurie (mCi) 3.7 x 107 dps or 2.22 x 109
dpm - 1 microcurie (mCi) 3.7 x 104 dps or 2.22x106
dpm - 1 Becquerel (Bq) 1 disintegration per second
- Specific Activity
- amount of radioactivity in a given mass or
volume, e.g. µCi/ml or mCi/gm
21Rate of Radioactive Decay
- Half-life time required for 1/2 of a sample to
decay from its original activity - Example
- If we have a sample of 1000 atoms, and its
half-life is 10 days, after 10 days approximately
500 atoms will remain
22Half-Life
The time required for the amount of radioactive
material to decrease by one-half
23Half-Life I-131
- 8 day half-life
- 0 8 16 24 32
- 1.0 ½ ¼ 1/8 1/16
- 20 mCi 10 mCi 5 mCi 2.5 mCi 1.25 mCi
24Half-Life and Radioactive Decay
- Half-life tells how long a substance may last
half-lives range from microseconds to billions of
years. - Activity (Ci or Bq) tells how active the
material is or the number of nuclear
transformations occurring in a quantity of
material per unit time
25Activity Calculations
- A Aoe-lt
- (? ln 2 T½ 0.693/ T½)
- Phosphorus-32 has a half-life of 14.3 days.
How much is left of a one millicurie shipment
after 30 days? - A 1 mCi e-(0.693/14.3 d) x
30 d - A 0.234 mCi
26Decay Table
27Absorbed Dose
- Absorbed dose is measured as amount of energy
deposited per unit mass of tissue - Expressed in units of Gray (Gy) or rads
- 1 J/kg 1 Gy 100 rads
28Equivalent Dose
- Unit of equivalent dose rem (Roentgen
equivalent man) - Dose in rads of alpha / neutron radiation cause
the same biological injury as one rad of x-rays
or gamma rays - SI Unit Sievert (Sv) (1 Sv 100 rem)
29Relative Biological Effectiveness
- Radiation WR or QF
- Gamma, X, Beta 1
- Neutron 5-20
- Alpha 20
- Dose equivalence absorbed dose x radiation
weighting factor (WR) or quality factor (QF) for
that particle
30Annual Occupational Limits
- 5000 mrem (5 rem or 50 mSv) whole body
- 15,000 mrem (15 rem or 150 mSv) to lens of eye
- 50,000 mrem (50 rem or 500 mSv) to extremities
- Set by federal government based on advice from
scientific committees
31Other Dose Limits
- Members of public limited to 100 mrem
- Employees under 18 limited to 10 of permissible
adult dose limit (500 mrem annually) - Children not permitted in labs
32Declared Pregnant WorkersDNR 391-3-17-.03(h)
- A woman who has voluntarily informed her employer
- in writing - of her pregnancy - 500 mrem/term limit to fetus (50 mrem/month)
- Monthly fetal badge assigned
33Background Exposure
- Average exposure in United States 360 millirem
per year - Varies with location, soil, altitude, diet,
lifestyle
34Sources of Radiation Exposure to the U.S.
Population
35Radon
- Naturally occurring heavier-than-air radioactive
gas - Can accumulate in lower levels of well-insulated
homes - No evidence of increased risk at household
concentrations
36Cosmic Radiation
- Sea Level 26 mrem/yr
- Minneapolis, MN 815 feet 30 mrem/yr
- Atlanta, GA 1,050 feet 31 mrem/yr
- Salt Lake City, UT 4,400 ft. 46 mrem/yr
- Denver, CO 5,300 feet 50 mrem/yr
37Terrestrial Radiation - Soil
- United States (avg.) 26 mrem/yr
- Denver, CO 63 mrem/yr
- Nile Delta, Egypt 350 mrem/yr
- Paris, France 350 mrem/yr
- Coast of Kerala, India 400 mrem/yr
- McAipe, Brazil 2,558 mrem/yr
- Pocos De Caldas, Brazil 7,000 mrem/yr
38Radionuclides in Foods
- Mostly from 40K, 14C, 3H, 226Ra, and 232Th
- Tap Water 20 pCi/liter (U238, Ra226/228)
- Milk 1,400 pCi/liter (I131,Sr90,Cs137)
- Brazil Nuts 14 pCi/gram (Ra226)
- Bananas 3 pCi/gram (40k)
- Peanuts 0.12 pCi/gram (40K, 226Ra)
39Medical Sources of Radiation (Data for 1980 Pie
Chart)
- Chest X-Rays (140 mrem to skin of chest)
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- Dental X-Rays (400 mrem to skin of face)
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- I-131 to treat hyperthyroidism (300 rem to
thyroid) - Radiotherapy for polycythemia (excess RBCs)
About 600 rem to bone marrow using P-32
40Consumer Products
- Cigarettes (2 packs/day8000 mrem/yr) 210Po
- Porcelain Dentures (1,500 mrem/yr) Uranium
- Radioactive Dishes
- Lantern Mantles (2 mrem/yr) 232Th
- No Salt KCl
- Smoke detectors (0.01 mrem/yr) 241Am
- Radioluminous watches / clocks (lt1 mrem/yr) 226Ra
41Radiation Biology
- Ionization in Living Tissue (Cell Damage) causes
molecules in cells to be broken apart, which can
kill the cell or cause them to reproduce
abnormally - Damage to a cell can come from direct or indirect
action of the radiation
42Direct / Indirect Action
- DIRECT
- Change caused by interaction between
radiation particles and body cell molecules,
e.g., direct break-up of DNA molecules - INDIRECT
- Chemical change of cell by forming reactive
chemical fragments (free radicals) that diffuse
the track and react further elsewhere - H, (OH) gt H2 or H2O or H2O2
43Biological Effects of Radiation
- Direct and Indirect damage to cell
- - repair
- - cell dies or ceases function
- - cell survives (passes on defect)
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- Cell damage readily repairable at low dose rates
44Types of Effects
- Somatic Effects Observed in exposed person
- Prompt somatic effects observable soon after a
large acute dose - Delayed somatic effects Observed as late as 30
years after exposure - Genetic Effects Abnormalities occur in future
children of exposed individuals and future
generations - Teratogenic Effects Observed in children who
were exposed during the fetal and embryonic
stages of development
45Factors Determining BiologicalEffects of
Radiation Exposure
- Amount of exposure - rads
- Exposure Rate rads/minute
- Portion of Body exposed
- Radiation Characteristics a, ß, ?
- Mitosis (cell division) rate
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46Short Term Effects
- High Doses in a short period of time (acute dose)
- A short period of time is considered to be less
than 1 week. - 25 rem Decrease in RBCs and increase in WBCs
- 50 - 100 rem Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
- 100 - 250 rem Lethargic, infection, fever,
erythema, edema - 250 - 450 rem GI Disorder, internal bleeding,
death to 50 of population in 60 days with no
medical treatment. - gt600 rem CNS Disorder, temporary feeling of
well-being, death to most people within two
weeks, with no medical treatment. - Reference The numbers used here are from The
Cancer Risk from Low-Level Radiation. Bernard L.
Cohen. Health Physics, Vol. 39, No.4, Oct., 1980.
47Long Term Somatic Effects
- Injury to cells that are continually
proliferating embryonic and adult tissue - Affect rate of cell division Cancer
- Latent period can be gt 30 years
48Late EffectsCells/Tissue at Risk
- Gonads
- Lung
- Breast
- Eye Lens
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50Radiation and Cancer
- Radium watch/clock painters
- 48 out 1700 women died of bone cancer (17,000 Rem
to bones) -
- U.S. miners and lung cancer
- 135 out of 4100 workers died of lung cancer (4700
Rem to lungs) -
- Hiroshima/Nagasaki (Atomic Bomb)
- 120 out of 24,000 died of cancer (130 Rem)
51Effects on Embryo / Fetus
- Radiation doses in excess of 10 rem may cause
adverse effects - Diagnostic x-ray procedures not generally harmful
- Fetal monitoring recommended for pregnant
radiation workers
52How Much Radiation Is Harmful?
- Radiogenic health effects (primarily cancer) are
observed in humans only at doses in excess of 10
rem delivered at high dose rates. Below this
dose, estimation of adverse health effect is
speculative. - Radiation Risk in Perspective
- Health Physics Society
53Balancing Risk and Benefit
- Maintain radiation exposure as low as reasonably
achievable (ALARA) - Employ common-sense radiation protection practices
54Radiation Protection Principles
- Personal Barrier
- Source Reduction
- Optimal technology
55Time
- Dose Rate x Time Dose
- 50 mrem/hr x ½ hour 25 mrem
- Plan and set up experiments in advance
- Practice
- Work efficiently, but dont be hasty
56Distance
- The dose rate is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from a gamma emitter - ? Maximize distance from source
57Shielding
- Choose appropriate shielding
- Plexiglas for high-energy beta emitters
- Lead or leaded glass for gamma emitters
- Contain isotope in vial, keep vial in shipping
container, secure material - Keep waste containers closed when not in use, and
shield if necessary
58P-32 Shielding
Cr-51 Shielding
Plexiglass
Lead
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60Personal Barrier
- Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
- Lab coat
- Gloves
- Eye protection
- Closed-toe shoes
- Additional PPE as required such as face shield,
or leaded gloves
61Source Reduction
- Minimize quantities and concentrations
- Keep work areas free from contamination
- Use fume hoods when working with volatile
compounds
62ALARA
- ALARA As Low As Reasonably Achievable
- Quarterly Investigational Limits
- Badge Level I (mrem) Level II
(mrem) - Body or chest 125 375
- Collar 400 1200
- Extremities 1250 3750
- Exposure Level lt Level I - No Action
- Exposure gt Level I but lt Level II - Report to
RCC - Exposure gt Level II - Reported to RCC and
employee and investigated by RSO
63Dosimetry
- Workers assigned radiation dosimetry as necessary
- Control badge issued
- Position badge for maximum radiation exposure
- Wear extremity dosimeter with label facing inside
hand - Additional monitoring as required
- Bioassay
- Personal air samplers
64Dosimetry
- Radiation badges can measure dose from high
energy betas, gamma x-rays - Radiation badges cannot measure dose from alphas
or weak beta emitters such as 3H, 14C, and 35S
65Guidelines for Dosimetry Assignment
- Those working with
- P-32
- Cr-51
- I-125 bound to protein
- Volatile I-125 or I-131
- Other gamma-emitting materials
- Possession Limit
- gt 50 mCi
- gt 10 mCi
- gt 5 mCi
- gt 1 mCi
- Any Amount
66Dosimetry Reports
- Dosimetry reports provided monthly or quarterly
- Review and initial dosimetry reports
- Report dosimetry problems to Radiation Safety
contact
67Year to date
Lifetime
68Optimal Technology
- Choose the most appropriate equipment
- Optimize risks, benefits, and costs
- Consider substitutions (33P instead of 32P)
- Design shielding around work instead of working
around shielding
69Common Isotopes at Emory
- S-35
- Cr-51
- I-125
- Cs-137 (Sealed Sources)
70http//las.perkinelmer.com/content/TechnicalInfo/T
CH_Phosphorus32.pdf
71Questions / Answers
71
72How to Have Successful RADIATION SAFETY AUDITS
- Audits performed quarterly by Radiation Safety
- The Georgia Department of Natural Resources
audits Emorys Radiation Safety Program
73Administrative Controls
- Occupational Dose Limits
- Dosimetry
- Radioactive Materials Authorization
- Laboratory Radiation Safety Contact
(Record keeping) - Isotope Purchase and Receipt
74Administrative Controls
- Inventory Maintenance
- Storage and Use Requirements
- Laboratory Surveys
- Radioactive Waste
- Spill Response
75Radioactive Materials Authorization
- Authorization approved by Radiation Control
Council - Specifies use
- Isotopes and limits
- Chemical forms
- Protocols
- Authorized users
- Authorized locations
- Conditions of use
76Radiation Safety Contact
- Liaison
- Responsible for documentation
- EHS Assist Maintenance
- Update binder
- Records may be purged after 3 years
77Isotope Purchase and Receipt
- Approved by and shipped to Radiation Safety
- Orders received by noon deadline can be delivered
the next business day - Contact Radiation Safety for questions about
orders - Radioactive materials transfers must be approved
by radiation in advance. - Fax or email the transfer form to a Health
Physicist
78Emory Express
- Things to remember when ordering isotopes through
Emory Express - ? Shipping Address
- Attn Radiation Safety/(authorized users name)
- Department Radiation Safety Office
- Building/Room Whitehead Bldg, Rm G44
- 615 Michael St.
- Atlanta, GA. 30322
- ? Sub code for radioactive materials 4580
79 Emory Express
- ? Internal Notes Section
- 1) R
- 2) Amount on hand
- 3) Lab delivery location
- If you need assistance with ordering isotopes
through Emory Express, contact - Paula Pleger 712-0103
- Shanari Carter 727-9694
80Package Receipt
- All radioactive material shipments are surveyed
for contamination prior to delivery
81Use Logs
- Maintain for each isotope vial
- May be paper or computer-driven
- Enter date, activity, amount removed and initials
of user - Past logs are to be kept in notebook
82Isotope Use Sheets
83EHS Assistant
- Online Isotope Management System
- Replaces HOT2008
- Manages isotope use, waste, auto decay,
inventory, waste pickup requests - Contact your Health Physicist for training
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85Isotope Storage
- Secure stock material
- Lock box
- Lockable freezer
- Lock lab (if applicable)
- Prevent unauthorized access
86Required Post-Use Surveys
- Survey area and self immediately after use
- Document survey in same calendar week
- Survey with GM meter, if appropriate (gamma and
high energy beta emitters) - Perform wipe-test/contamination survey (liquid
scintillation or gamma counter)
87Radiation Safety Quarterly Audits
- Review RAM inventory records before Radiation
Safety audit - Verify survey documentation is current
- Conduct G-M and contamination surveys
- Assess other factors in the lab, e.g.
- Are staff wearing badges?
- Is appropriate PPE being worn?
- Is shielding present?
88Common Violations
- Weekly surveys not performed
- Contamination
- Food or drink in lab / cold room
- Improper shielding
- Inventory not properly maintained
- Children in laboratory
- Dosimetry reports not reviewed
- Unauthorized transfers
89Instrumentation
- Geiger Mueller Counter
- Geiger counters are used to detect radiation
- (alpha, beta, and gamma)
- Liquid Scintillation Counter
- A detector of particles and ionizing radiation
which uses a - photomultiplier to generate flashes of light
90Anatomy of a Geiger Counter
On/Off
Analog display
Fast/Slow
Multipliers
Reset
Batteries
91Probes
- The two most common probes are the
- Hot Dog Pancake
- Function
- Dose rate Contamination
92GM Meter Operation
- Check calibration (annual)
- Check battery
- Check response to radiation
- Use mR/hr scale if available
- Scan one detector head per second and 1 inch
from the surface - Clean area if greater than 2 mR/hr
93Whats the dose rate?(exercise)
- Using Sr90 Co60 what is the dose rate?
- 1 above the surface
- When surveying for contamination, move the probe
1 or 2 detector head size per second
94Beta/Gamma Discrimination(exercise)
Determine the type of radiation by placing a
barrier between the probe and contaminated area
95Liquid Scintillation
- Samples are dissolved or suspended in solvent
- Particles emitted transfer energy to solvent
molecules - Molecules dissipate energy by emitting light
96Liquid Scintillation
Quantify and express the count rate in units of
radioactivity Cpm/dpm efficiency Each isotope
of interest has it own counting efficiency
Liquid Efficiencies (LSC) H-3 (.35), C-14 (.85),
P-32(.98), P-33(.85) S-35(.85), I-125(.75),
I-131(.85)
97CPM to DPM Conversion
- Determine efficiency by counting a standard
calibrated in DPM or converted to DPM from
microcuries - Perform QC checks
98- Counting conditions to consider
- Quenching Lowers intensity resulting in
reduced efficiency - Geometry sample position, uniformity
- Cocktail Biodegradable, select best
cocktail for samples
Optimal Conditions
Color Chemical Quench
99Contamination Surveys using a Liquid
Scintillation Counter
- Count blank wipe for instrument background
- Record results in DPM or CPM with proper
documentation (eff) - Cleanup required at 3x background, or gt200 dpm
100Wipe Tests
Detect the presence of removable contamination
101Wipe Tests
Standard industry practice 100 cm2
100 cm2
12 to 14
4 x 4
102gt200 dpm/100cm2
103LSC information
Data results
Efficiency
104Radioactive Waste
Waste in proper containers
Containers not overfilled
Appropriate container shielding
Complete container labels
105Waste Streams
- Segregate waste by isotope and waste stream
- Liquid (usually 80-90 of waste)
- Dry (10-20)
- Liquid Scintillation Vials (lt1 mCi)
- Use clear waste bags and no Biohazard bags
- No lead shipping containers in the waste. Turn
them in on waste day or during a waste pickup - Deface trifoil symbols
106Preparing waste
- Complete the radioactive waste cards prior to
pickup or transporting to waste day - - P.I.
- - Isotope
- - Dose rate
- - Date
- - EHSA Container
107Preparing waste
- Seal liquid waste containers with a cap
- Place liquid waste into secondary containers
prior to transporting - Place clear bags inside the fiber drum and
buckets
108Waste Drop-off Locations
- Whitehead and Rollins Buildings Thursday 9 am
- 12 noon Whitehead Room G44 -
- Woodruff Memorial Research Building Thursday 1
pm - 4 pm WMB Room LL302 - Other locations usually Wednesday
afternoon Call 727-8784 for pickup
109How to clean up a spill
- Warn others of a spill
- Wear all PPE and double glove
- Wipe from the perimeter toward the center.
- Use an all purpose cleaner (no solvents!!)
- Check for contamination with wipe test and Geiger
counter if appropriate
110How to clean up a spill
- Repeat cleaning and contamination tests until the
area is lt200 dpm/100 cm2 - Once the spill is cleaned survey yourself before
exiting the area - If you are not able to decontaminate the area
contact radiation safety for assistance - Call RSO for assistance if a major spill
(404-727-5922) - Document contamination survey
111Response to Spilled Radioactive Materials on Skin
or Personnel Clothing
- Rinse affected area with soap and running water
(10-15 mins) - Use lukewarm water, cold water will cause pores
to close trapping contamination - Hot water will cause pores to open, causing
contamination to travel deeper into layers of the
skin - Pat affected area dry with a disposable towel
- Proceed with contamination monitoring
112Response to Spilled Radioactive Materials on Skin
or Personnel Clothing
- Remove contaminated clothing and place in a
plastic bag for decay/disposal ( place the bag in
a fume hood or separate waste bucket)
- Contact the RSO or a member of the Radiation
Safety staff of any suspected or confirmed
contamination of the skin or personal clothing
113Questions / Answers
113
114Before you leave
- ? Please complete exam
- Turn in exam with
- completed Personnel History Form and
- training evaluation
- ? Obtain a radiation badge, if needed according
to guidelines, from the trainer
115 - Thank you!
- Tell us what you think of the training
- complete an online training evaluation survey _at_
www.ehso.emory.edu - For questions about other Radiation Safety
training, - Contact Chris Vanderpool at 727-1355
- For questions about other EHSO required training,
- Contact Diane Kusek, EHSO Training Manager at
- 727-8437 or diane.kusek_at_emory.edu
115