Representation, participation, democracy

1
Representation, participation, democracy

• Democracy
• Rule by the people
• Direct v representative democracy

2
Direct democracy (1)

• Assemblies (as in ancient Greece, still in use in
  some Swiss cantons). All citizens meet and decide
  on public matters.
• Advantages
• Equality. Everyone has his say. Arguments tested
  against each other on equal terms
• Disadvantages
• In Greece, only free men could participate
• In practice, certain orally gifted men
  (demagogues) had the most power
• In modern society, there are practical
  restrictions

3
Direct democracy (2)

• Referendums (plebiscites)
• Advantages
• Give citizens their direct say. Political elites
  usually forced to follow referendum results even
  when they go against their wishes (EU, Euro).
• Disadvantages
• Can be tailored towards a certain result
• Political elites decide question and wording
• Impossible to hold referendums on too many issues
  (can lead to contradictory results)

4
Other forms of direct democracy

• Recall vote (currently in 18 US states got
  Arnold Schwarzenegger into office)
• Popular initiative (US states, Switzerland). In
  Switzerland 100,000 signatures (1.3 of
  population 2.5 of electorate) required for
  constitutional changes half (50,000) sufficient
  to subject a new or changed law to a vote

5
Still

• although most countries hold referendums, in
  some cases quite frequently, modern democracy is
  primarily based on representation
• We elect representatives to take decisions on our
  behalf
• That means that representation is central to
  democracy

6
Representation and democracy

• are by no means synonymous. Representative
  democracy is but one form of democracy
• Indeed, there are those that argue that
  representative democracy is an oxymoron it
  cannot be democracy if you pass your influence
  on to someone else (cf. Michels, anarchism)

7
Nevertheless

• it is quite widely accepted that representation
  is an acceptable, in fact indispensable, part of
  democracy
• Political decisions, even at the local level, are
  so complex that it requires a lot of time and
  effort to take an informed decision, time which
  most people do not have
• So we elect representatives!

8
Forms of representation

• The debate about representation is about
• Who and what you are, and/or
• what you do
• Hanna F Pitkins classic work from 1967
  distinguishes between
• Standing for, and
• Acting for

9
Standing for

• The legitimacy of the representative depends on
  who s/he is
• Can be divided into
• Descriptive representation. The legitimacy of the
  representative depends on tangible criteria, and
  their relation to the represented. Man/ woman,
  working/middle class, etc
• Symbolic representation. The representative has
  the interests of the represented at heart,
  regardless of tangible criteria, such as gender,
  age, etc.

10
Acting for

• The legitimacy of the representative depends on
  what s/he does
• Trustee The representative acts in the interests
  of the represented, regardless of their opinions
• Delegate The representative acts in accordance
  with the opinions of the represented

11
Key issues of representation include

• Are formal or superficial criteria relevant? Can
  a man represent women, or vice versa?
• Should the opinions of the represented be taken
  into account by the representative? Do the
  representatives always know what is in their own
  interests?
• Who should you represent if there is a conflict
  of interest? Your party, your own partys voters,
  your constituency in general?

12
Arguments for socio-demographic representativeness

• Reasons why women should represent women, young
  represent young, etc.
• Equity fairness
• Complementary experience
• Conflict of interest
• Predictor of activity (e.g. voting)
• BUT neither of this is universally agreed. There
  is quite an intense debate about whether
  likeness is at all relevant

13
Participation

• On the face of it, participation could be seen as
  the opposite of representation
• Thinkers such as Joseph Schumpeter argue that
  democracy should be purely representative
• The only legitimate function of ordinary people
  should be to choose between competitive elites

14
But

• It can just as well be argued that representation
  and participation complement each other
• In a representative democracy, we can participate
  via active membership in
• Political parties
• Interest groups
• Permanent (long-term) campaign groups
• We can also participate in a more direct ways,
  for example via petitions, lobbying,
  demonstrations, ad-hoc campaigns, etc.

15
Modes of participation

• From Verba, Nye and Kim 1971 (see R.J. Dalton
  Citizen Politics ch. 3 Moyser in Axtmann, ed.)
• Voting
• Campaign activity
• Citizen-initiated contacting
• Participation through interest groups
• This brief list indicates different levels of
  intensity, but also different dimensions

16
Dimensions of participation (somewhat different,
more elaborate, table in Dalton, ch. 3)
17
The relation between representation and
participation

• provides us with something of a dilemma
• Many (though not everyone!) would agree that
  participation is an integral part of our
  democracy
• But the levels of participation are not evenly
  distributed.
• Professional campaigners?
• Memberships of political parties not reflective
  of society
• So if participation takes up too much space in
  our democracy, can it be at the expense of some
  groups. Unrepresentative?

18
A possible solution?

• Deliberative Democracy
• Taken from German philosopher and sociologist
  Jürgen Habermas (who calls it discursive
  democracy)
• Deliberation is a discussion, and exchange of
  views, aimed at reaching a consensual solution
• In practice, this can take place via voting, or
  negotiation

19
In political parties

• policy decisions could be preceded by (a series
  of) deliberative polls
• A representative sample of members are invited to
  deliberate on a policy issue
• Modern conference technologies could be used
• This idea has been presented by Jan Teorell
  (Party Politics 1999)