Informatics Information and Systems

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InformaticsInformation and Systems
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InformationSystems
Modelling
Business IS
Historical
Information System
Information
System
Management
Decision-making
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Coverage
It is a very sad thing that nowadays there is so
little useless information. Oscar Wilde (1854 -
1900) Everybody gets so much information all day
long that they lose their common sense. Gertrude
Stein (1874 - 1946)

• Information
• Systems
• Information Systems
• Business Information Systems
• Management and Decision-Making
• Modelling Information Systems

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Information
Data
Symbol
Vocabulary
Concept
Referrent
Grammar
Meaning Triangle
Social System
Speech Acts
Syntax
Context
Syntactics
Information Theory
Semantics
Power
Pragmatics
Empirics
Norm
Authority
Semiotics
Status
Medium
Role
Bandwidth
Communication
Human
Receiver
Culture
Systems
Signal Signs Message
Agent
Sender
Non-Human
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Semiotics/Semiology
Semiotics
Communication
Signs
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Components of Communication
Message
Specification Of Intentions
Sender
Transmission Of Signal
Communication Medium
Interpretation Of Message
Receiver
Receipt Of Signal
Message
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Examples of Communication
Face-to-Face Conversation
Spoken Language
Spoken Language
Sound
Receiver
Sender
Communication Medium
Message
Message
Telephone Conversation
Spoken Language
Electro-magnetic Transmission
Spoken Language
Receiver
Sender
Communication Medium
Message
Message
E-Mail
Written Language
Electro-magnetic Transmission
Written Language
Receiver
Sender
Communication Medium
Message
Message
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Signs
Signification
Human
Information
Data
Sign System
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Levels of Signs
Semiotics
Pragmatics
Context
Semantics
Meaning
Syntactics
Structure
Empirics
Medium
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Pragmatics
Social System
Norm
Role
Status
Power/Authority
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Semantics
Meaning Triangle
Concept
Symbol
Referent
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Examples of Signs
Concept Female Gender
Symbol
Referent Female Population
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Syntactics
Language
Vocabulary
Formal Language
Grammar
Natural Language
Syntax
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Empirics
Communication Channel/Medium
Bandwidth
Speed
Redundancy
Distortion
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Analysing Signs
Semiotics
Pragmatics
Health and the workplace
Semantics
Prohibition against smoking
Syntactics
Iconic Representation
Empirics
Visual
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Semiotics and IS
Information System
Human Activity System
Information Technology System
Syntactics
Semantics
Pragmatics
Data Manipulation
Human Activity
Empirics
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Summary-Information

• Information can be seen as embodied in signs and
  the process of signification, essential elements
  of the area known as semiotics
• Semiotics or semiology is the study of signs.
  Semiotics consists of four sub-areas pragmatics,
  semantics, syntactics and empirics.
• Pragmatics is the study of the general context
  and culture of communication or the shared
  assumptions underlying human understanding
• Semantics is the study of the meaning of signs
• Syntactics is the study of the logic and grammar
  of sign systems
• Empirics is the study of the physical
  characteristics of the medium of communication
• Signs are the component elements of
  communication. Communication involves senders,
  receivers, communication channels and messages
• Signs can be considered in terms of three
  constituent elements the symbol or that which is
  signifying, the referent or that which is being
  signified and the concept or the idea of
  significance.
• Symbols are equivalent to data. A datum, a
  single item of data, is a set of symbols used to
  represent something.

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Systems
Emergent Properties
Purpose
Environment
Structure
Concepts
Process
Holistic Thinking
Complexity
Open
Inputs
Outputs
Closed
Constructs
Openness
Types
Steady-State
Sub-system
Stability
Dynamic
Adaptability
State
Variables
Control
Permanence
Discrete
Thinking
Feedback
Positive
State changes
Continuous
FeedForward
Negative
Hard
Soft
Soft Systems Methodology
Behaviour
Deterministic
Operational Research
Socio-Technical Thinking
Stochastic
Systems Analysis
Ethics
Systems Engineering
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System Elements
Environment
System
Outputs
Agent
Inputs
Agent
Process
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Sub-Systems
System
Process
Sub-System
Inputs
Outputs
Process
Control Inputs
Control
Inputs
Outputs
Control Inputs
Control
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System Types
Simple
Complex
Open
Closed
Steady State
Dynamic
Non-Adaptive
Adaptive
Permenant
Non-Permenant
Discrete
Continuous
Deterministic
Stochastic
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Control
Environment
System
Outputs
Agent
Inputs
Agent
Process
Control
Agent
Control Inputs
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Performance
Performance
Efficiency
Effectiveness
Efficacy/Utility
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Performance of an IT System
Human Activity System
Process
Information System
Process
IT System
Inputs
Outputs
Process
Control Inputs
Control
Inputs
Outputs
Control Inputs
Control
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Negative Feedback
Environment
System
Outputs
Inputs
Process
Control
Control Inputs
-
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Positive Feedback
Environment
System
Outputs
Inputs
Process
Control
Control Inputs

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Disciplines that developed from General Systems
Theory
Hard Systems Thinking
Systems Engineering
Operational Research
Systems Analysis
Soft Systems
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Summary-Systems
 The concept of a system is fundamental to the
discipline known as systems thinking or system
theory    Systems theory studies the general
characteristics of all systems   A system is an
organised collection of things with emergent
properties and with some defined purpose   The
definition of the characteristics of some system
is a subjective, sometimes an inter-subjective,
endeavour   Critical features or components of
all systems are sub-systems, input-process-output,
an environment, control   Systems may be
classified in various ways, including open,
closed systems and adaptive systems  Systems
thinking stimulated a number of distinct
disciplines, including systems engineering,
operational research and systems
analysis   Informatics work involves both hard
systems analysis and soft systems analysis
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InformationSystem
Socio-Technical System
Human Activity System
Information Technology
Supports
Warning Network
Supports
Historical Examples
Station X
Information
Systems
Stakeholders
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Fighter Command
HAS Fighter Command
IS The Warning Network
IT RADAR, Telephone, Plotting Rooms
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Warning Network as a System
Fighter Command
Warning Network
Outputs
Radar Stations
Fighter Squadrons
Radar data
Data Processing
Observer Posts
Observations
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Warning Network
Radar Stations
Radar Data
Observer Corp Data
Observer Corps
Command HQ
Filter Room
Sight and Sound Observations
Group HQ
Filtered Data
Group Operations Room
Operations Room
Sector HQ
Sector Operations Room
Instructions
Filtered Data
Instructions
Airfields
Orders on Readiness
Anti-Aircraft Command
Air-Raid Warning Control
Pilot Data
Direction Finding Stations
Aircraft
Orders
After Holwell and Checkland
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Station X
Allied Strategy and Tactics
IS Cryptanalysis system
IT Radio, Telephone, Decoding Machines
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Station X as a System
Station X
Allied Command
Station Y
Allied Forces
De-cryption Unit
Receiving Station
Encrypted messages
Decrypted messages
Receiving Station
De-cryption Unit
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Encryption
Key
Key
Plain Text
Cipher Text
Plain Text
Encryption Algorithm
Decryption Algorithm
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Historical Insights

• Both the Warning Network and Station X can
  clearly be seen as systems
• Both systems were clearly concerned with data
  generation, dissemination and use
• Information Systems are distinct from Information
  Technology.
• Good information systems are critical to
  effective human action.
• The effective place of Information technology
  within the larger information system has to be
  designed with the aid of system stakeholders
• Information systems and information technology do
  not stand still. They continually evolve

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IT Systems Support Human Activity
Information System
Human Activity System
Information Technology System
Meaning Attribution
Data
Data Manipulation
Manipulated Data
Human Activity
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IT, IS and HAS
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Types of Information System
Decision-Support
Activity
Organisation
Private
Public
Transaction-Processing
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Levels of Information System
Decision Support System/ Executive Information
System
Management Data
Management Information System
Operational Data
Transaction Processing System
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Summary-Information Systems

• The analysis of historical information systems is
  an extremely useful exercise for highlighting the
  essential features of information systems
• Information systems are communication systems
• Information Systems are distinct from Information
  Technology. Information technology supports
  communication within the information system
• Good information systems are critical to
  efficient and effective action.
• The place of information technology within an
  organisation has to be determined with the aid of
  system stakeholders
• Information and information technology systems
  rarely stand still. They evolve to support
  changes to human activity systems
• There are three major levels of systems
  transaction processing systems (TPS), management
  information systems (MIS) and decision support
  systems (DSS)/executive information systems (EIS)
• We may also distinguish information systems in
  terms of the organisation in which they are
  applied in the public sector from those which are
  applied in the private sector

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BusinessIS
Human Activity System
Information Technology
Supports
Supports
Levels
TPS
MIS
DSS/EIS
Employee Facing
Supplier Facing
HRM
Customer Facing
Core
Procurement
Production
Sales Order Processing
CRM
Marketing
Payroll
Purchase Order Processing
Sales
Distribution
Accounting
IS Architecture
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Generic IS Infrastructure
Differentiating Infrastructure
Competitive Advantage
Core Infrastructure
Outsourcing
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Core Information Systems
Customer
Supplier
Customer Shipping Note
Supplier Shipping Note
Customer Invoice
Purchase Order
Sales Order
Supplier Invoice
Sales Order Processing
Purchase Order Processing
Accounting
Amounts Owed (Customers)
Amounts Owed (Suppliers)
Labour Costs
Payroll
Payments
Pay Advices
Time-Sheets
Employee
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B2B and B2C
Company A
Customer Shipping Note
Customer Chain
Customer Invoice
Business to Customer Commerce (B2C)
Sales Order
Company B
Supplier Shipping Note
Supplier Invoice
Supply Chain
Business to Business Commerce (B2B)
Purchase Order
Company C
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Information Systems Infrastructure
Customer
Supplier
Customer Shipping Note
Supplier Shipping Note
Customer Invoice
Purchase Order
Sales Order
Supplier Invoice
IS Infrastructure
Sales Order Processing
Purchase Order Processing
Accounting
Amounts Owed (Customers)
Amounts Owed (Suppliers)
Labour Costs
Payroll
Payments
Pay Advices
Time-Sheets
Employee
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Order Processing Information System
Customer Notification
Customer
Order Entry
Sales Order
Inventory Status
Processed Orders
Shipment Planning
Stock Control
Picking List
Shipment Plan
Stock No. Qty
Shipment Execution
Customer Shipping Note
Shipped Orders
Customer
Customer Invoice
Invoicing
Amounts Owed (Customers)
Customer Payment
Accounting
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Order Entry
Customer
Sales Order
Capture Order
Customer Details
Captured Order
Product/ Price Data
Products
Verify Order
Stock Levels
Back Order
Stock
Verified Order
Rejected Order
Customer
Authorise Order
Notify Customer
Customers
Customer Notification
Credit Status
Confirmed Order
Open Orders
Confirmed Back Orders
New Orders
Back Orders
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Purchasing Information System
Employee
Stock Control
Purchase Order Request
Stock Status
Purchase Order Handling
Purchase Order
Supplier Shipping Note
Purchase Order Data
Supplier
Receiving System
Supplier Invoice
Amounts Owed (Suppliers)
Accounts Payable System
Supplier Payment
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Financial Information System
Order Processing
Purchasing
Supplier
Stock Control
Customer
Amounts Owed (Customers)
Amounts Owed (Suppliers)
Supplier Payment
Customer Payment
Assets
Accounts Receivable System
Accounts Payable System
Supplier Invoice
Customer Invoice
Amounts Owed Paid (Customers)
Amounts Owed Paid (Suppliers)
General Ledger System
Labour Costs
Expense Transactions
Payroll System
Budgeting System
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Payroll Information System
Time-Sheets
Employee Data
Unit
Validated Work Details
Calculating Pay
Capturing Work Details
Employees
Pay Data
Work Details
Labour Costs
General Ledger System
Making Payments
Production Control
Payments
Pay Advices
Employee
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Other TPS

• Customer-Facing
• Sales
• Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
• Marketing
• Distribution
• Supplier-Facing
• Procurement
• Supplier Relationship Management (SRM)
• Employee-Facing
• Human Resource Management
• Production

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Extended IS Infrastructure
Supplier
Customer
Customer Relationship Management
Sales
Marketing
Production
Supplier Relationship Management
Purchase Order Processing
Suppliers
Customers
Sales Order Processing
Stock Control
Procurement
Stock
Distribution
Accounting
Employees
Finance
Payroll
Human Resource Management
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Data and Markets
A Market
Company A
Goods/Services
Data
Company B
Goods/Services
Data
Company C
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Summary-Business IS

• Each business organisation's information systems
  will necessarily be different. However, there are
  similarities across organisations in the same
  business sector. Hence it is possible to develop
  generic descriptions of a number of key business
  information systems
• Key business information systems include sales
  order processing, purchase order processing,
  accounts and payroll
• Other key transaction processing systems may be
  distinguished in terms of whether they are
  supplier-facing, customer-facing or
  employee-facing
• Customer-facing TPS include sales,
  customer-relationship management, marketing and
  distribution
• Supplier-facing TPS include procurement and
  supplier-relationship management
• Employee-facing TPS include human resource
  management and production management
• Information systems support the flow of goods
  and services between organisations

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Management
Tactical Management
Operational Management
Strategic Management
Levels
Data Limitations
Satisficing
Decision-Making
Limited Time
Rationality
Limited information Processing
Stages
Implementation
Intelligence
Choice
Design
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Decision-Making and Action
Action
Decision Making
Decision
Information
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Management as Control
Organisation
Inputs
Outputs
Human Activity System
Control Inputs
Management
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Good Data
Decision- Making
Data Manipulation
Data
Information

• Accuracy. Is the data expressed to a suitable
  level of accuracy?
• Age. Is the data timely?
• Time Horizon. Is data relevant to a particular
  time period?
• Level of Summarisation. Is the data summarised to
  an appropriate level of aggregation?
• Completeness. How completely does the data cover
  the domain?
• Accessibility. Is the data accessible?
• Relevance. Is the data relevant to the decision
  to be made?

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Decision-Making Process
Decision-Making
Intelligence
Information
Design
Choice
Implementation
Decision
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Rational Decision-Making

• Intelligence. In rational decision-making the
  decision-maker must gather all relevant data and
  interpret it in an unbiased manner
• Design. The decision-maker must identify all
  feasible alternatives and identify an explicit
  set of criteria for selecting between them
• Choice. The decision-maker should choose amongst
  alternatives based on a systematic assessment
  using explicit weightings of the importance of
  key criteria

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Satisficing Decision-Making

• Limited Time. Most management decision-making has
  to be done in a finite amount of time
• Limited Information. In most practicable
  situations it is impossible to gather all the
  possible data relevant to the problem because of
  limited resources
• Limited Information-Processing Capability. The
  decision-making process is constrained by the
  limitations of human information processing. For
  instance, information is interpreted and human
  interpretation is subject to non-rational emotive
  influences. Also human beings display limitations
  of short-term memory. Most humans can handle on
  average only seven items of information at any
  one time (Miller)

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Levels of Management
Large Time Horizon
Unstructured Problems
Strategic Management
Summary Data
Tactical Management
Operational Management
Detailed Data
Small Time Horizon
Structured Problems
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Information Systems for Management
Strategic Management
Decision Support Systems
Tactical Management
Management Information Systems
Operational Management
Transaction Processing Systems
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Management Information Systems
Management Information System
Stock
Finance
Customers
Employees
Transaction Processing Systems
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MIS/EIS DSS
Executive Information System
Planning
Management Information System
Stock
Finance
Customers
Employees
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Summary-Management and Decision-Making

• Decisions and decision-making mediates between
  information and action
• Good decision-making is reliant on good
  information. Information reduces uncertainty in
  decision-making
• Characteristics of good data include accuracy,
  relevance, timeliness, accessibility and
  completeness
• We may identify three levels of management
  strategic management, tactical management and
  operational management. There are clear
  differences in information needs and forms of
  decision-making appropriate to the three levels
  of management
• Simon identifies the following stages in any
  decision-making intelligence, design, choice and
  implementation
• Most human decision-making is satisficing rather
  than rational
• MIS, EIS and DSS have all been developed with
  the aim of supporting management decision-making
  in organisations

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InformationSystemsModelling
Data Flow
Process
Conceptual
Data Store
Agent
Logical
Constructs
Levelling
Representation
Notation
Constructs
Physical
Abstraction
Principles of Construction
Behavioural Modelling
Modelling
Communication
Cognitive Economy
Graphical
Less Ambiguity
Advantages
Purpose
Ease of Redrafting
Object Modelling
Structural Modelling
Constructs
Classes
Object Class
Attributes
Constructs
attribute
Methods
method() method()
Entities
Aggregation
Generalisation
Entity
Entity
Object Class
Object Class
Attribute Attribute Attribute
Attribute Attribute Attribute
Relationships
Object Class
Object Class
Object Class
Object Class
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Purpose of Modelling

• Communication. The primary use for a model is as
  a medium of communication between some group of
  persons
• Representation. A model is used to represent
  common understandings about some real-world
  phenomena amongst this group of persons
• Abstraction. Modelling generally implies some
  form of simplification of the real world. The
  modeller uses a model to focus on what are seen
  to be the important features of some real-world
  situation

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Elements of Modelling

• Constructs. By constructs we mean the component
  elements of the modelling approach
• Notation. By notation we mean the form of
  representation employed for the constructs within
  the modelling approach. Such a notation can be
  textual, graphical and/or mathematical. Graphical
  notations are probably the most frequently
  employed in information systems work because of
  ease of use
• Principles of Construction. By principles we mean
  the formal and informal rules for correctly
  constructing models

Constructs
Modelling
Notation
Model
Principles
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Process of Modelling
IS Modelling
Universe of Discourse
Information System
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Process of Abstraction
Meaning Triangle
Concept Intension
Abstraction
Symbol Designation
Referent Extension
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Objectivism/Subjectivism
Objectivism
Agreement
Universe of Discourse
Model
Subjectivism
Negotiation
Universe of Discourse
Model
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Dimensions of Modelling
Abstraction
Conceptual
Logical
Coverage
Physical
Behavioural
Structural
Object
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Behavioural Modelling Constructs
Agent
Process
Data Store
Data Flow
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Behavioral Model - Warning Network
Observer Corps
Radar Stations
Group System
Group Tote
Radar Data
Observer Corp Data
Sight and Sound Observations
Command System
Filtering
Command Tote
Group Map
Filtered Data
Command Operations
Group Operations
Command Map
Sector System
Filtered Data
Instructions
Sector Operations
Sector Map
Air-Raid Warning Control
Airfields
Instructions
Orders on Readiness
Anti-Aircraft Command
Group Tote
Pilot Data
Aircraft
Direction Finding
Orders
After Holwell and Checkland
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Structural Modelling Constructs
Entity
Entity
Relationship
Attribute Attribute Attribute
Attribute Attribute Attribute
Cardinality
Entity
Entity
(1..)
(0..1)
Attribute Attribute Attribute
Attribute Attribute Attribute
Optionality
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Entity-Relationship Diagram
Course
Lecturer
(1..1)
(1..1)
(1..1)
Teaches
(1..1)
(1..)
(1..)
(1..)
Registration
Prerequisite
Module
(1..1)
(1..)
(1..)
(1..)
Assessment
Enrolment
(1..)
(1..)
(1..)
Student
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Integration around Objects
Filtering
Entity
Object Class
attribute
method() method()
Filtering
Process
Data Store
Data Store
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Object Modelling Constructs
Object Class
Object Class
Association
attribute
attribute
method() method()
method() method()
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Relationship Types
Object Class
Generalisation
Object Class
Object Class
Object Class
Aggregation
Object Class
Object Class
Object Class
Object Class
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Object Model
Investor
(0..1)
(0..1)
(0..)
Order
(0..)
(1..1)
(1..)
FinancialIntermediary
Deal
(1..1)
(1..)
(overlapping, incomplete)
(1..)
(0..1)
MarketMaker
Broker
(1..1)
(1..)
(1..)
Holding
(1..)
(0..1)
(0..1)
Security
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Methods
Customer
BankAccount
customerNo customerName
accountNo currentBalance
enrolCustomer() deleteCustomer()
openAccount() creditAccount() debitAccount() close
Account()
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Summary-IS Modelling

• Modelling is an essential element of information
  systems work
• Any modelling needs three elements constructs,
  notation and principles of construction
• Modelling is normally undertaken for three
  reasons representation, communication and
  abstraction
• Modelling approaches can be distinguished in
  terms of levels of abstraction conceptual
  models, logical models and physical models
• Modelling approaches can also be distinguished
  in terms of their coverage of particular aspects
  of an information system structural modelling,
  behavioural modelling and object modelling
• Behavioural modelling consists of the following
  constructs processes, data flows, data stores
  and external agents
• Structural modelling consists of the following
  constructs entities, relationships and
  attributes
• Object modelling consists of the following
  constructs object, classes, attributes and
  methods