Attention as a

1
Chapter 9

• Attention as a
• Limited Capacity Resource

Concept Preparation for and performance of motor
skills are influenced by our limited capacity to
select and attend to information
2
Defining the Term Attention andMultiple Task
Performance

• Attention refers to characteristics associated
  with
• Consciousness
• Awareness
• Cognitive effort
• As they relate to the performance of skills, with
  particular reference to the limitations
  associated with those characteristics on the
• Simultaneous performance of multiple skills
• Detection of relevant information in the
  performance environment

3
Attention and Multiple Task Performance

• When we simultaneously perform multiple tasks
  (e.g. driving a car, listening to a CD, and
  talking with a passenger)
• we sometimes experience no difficulties in
  performing all the tasks, but
• we sometimes cannot do all the tasks as we would
  like
• WHY?
• Answer relates to attention as a performance
  limiting factor

4
Attention Theories

• Filter Theories (a.k.a. bottleneck theories)
• Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously
  because of limitation due to serial processing of
  multiple stimuli see Fig. 9-1
• Alternative Theories (Resource capacity theories)
• Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously
  because of limitation due to availability of
  resources needed to carry out tasks
• i.e. resource capacity limits
• Simultaneous performance of multiple tasks can
  occur as long as the resource capacity limits not
  exceeded

5
Attention Theories, contd

• Central Resource Capacity Theories
• Propose one central (i.e., CNS) source of
  attention resources for which all activities
  requiring attention compete

Task A Driving car
Task B Talking with passenger
Flexible attention capacity

• Kahnemans Attention Theory An Example of a
  Central Resource Capacity Theory
• Equates attention with cognitive effort
• Proposed flexible attention capacity limits
• See Figure 9.3

6
Kahnemans Attention Theory, contd
Miscellaneous determinants

• Arousal level The factor that influences the
  amount of attention capacity for a specific
  performance situation
• Amount of attention resources available (i.e.
  capacity) varies in relation to a persons
  arousal level
• Maximum amount available only when arousal level
  is optimal for the situation
• Relate to inverted-U function of arousal
  performance relationship
• Evaluation of attention requirements of multiple
  tasks to be performed
• Critical factor for determining whether
  sufficient attention resources available given
  capacity limits set by arousal level

Misc. manifestations of arousal
Arousal
Available capacity
Enduring dispositions
Allocation policy
Momentary intentions
Evaluation of demands on capacity
Possible activities
Responses
7
Kahnemans Attention Theory, contd
Miscellaneous determinants

• 3 rules people use to allocate available
  attention resources when performing multiple
  tasks
• Ensure completion of at least one task
• Enduring dispositions Involuntary attention
  allocation, e.g.,
• Novel for the situation
• Meaningfulness of the event (e.g., cocktail
  party phenomenon)
• Momentary intentions
• Allocate attention according to instructions

Misc. manifestations of arousal
Arousal
Available capacity
Enduring dispositions
Allocation policy
Momentary intentions
Evaluation of demands on capacity
Possible activities
Responses
8
Multiple Resource Theories

• Alternative to theories proposing one central
  resource
• Propose that we have several sources for
  attention
• Each source has a limited capacity of resources
• The multiple sources based on specific
  information processing component
• Sensory input (e.g. visual, proprioceptive)
• Response output (e.g. verbal, motor)
• Type of memory code (e.g. spatial, verbal)
• Performance of simultaneous multiple tasks
  depends on competition for attention resources
  within and between the multiple sources

9
Procedures for Assessing Attention Demands

• Dual-task procedure determine the attention
  demands and characteristics of the simultaneous
  performance of two different tasks
• Primary task is the task of interest
• Secondary task performance is the basis to make
  inferences about the attention demands of the
  primary task

10
Focusing Attention

• Attentional focus
• The marshalling of attention resources to direct
  them to specific characteristics of our
  performance or performance environment
• Width of focus
• Focus can be broad or narrow
• Direction of focus
• Focus can be external or internal
• Attention switching
• The changing of attention focus characteristics
  in a situation that allows successful performance

11
Focusing Attention on Movements vs. Movement
Effects

• Concerns direction of attentional focus Does
  internal or external direction matter?
• Action effect hypothesis (Prinz, 1997)
• Proposed benefit of external focus during
  performance
• Focus attention on intended outcome of
  movements rather than on movements themselves

12
Attention and Automaticity

• Automaticity Performance of a skill (or parts
  of a skill) without requiring attention resources
• Automaticity of task performance related to
  amount of practice
• Question that remains for researchers to answer
  How automated does the performance of complex
  skills become?

13
Visual Selective Attention

• The study of attention as it relates to the use
  of vision in the selection of environmental
  information in the preparation and/or performance
  of an action
• Visual search is the process of directing visual
  attention to locate relevant information (i.e.,
  cues) in the environment

14
Visual Selective Attention, contd

• Eye-movement recordings are commonly used to
  investigate visual selective attention
• Important question is What is the relationship
  between eye movements and visual selective
  attention does what a person is looking at
  (point of gaze) indicate where visual selective
  attention is directed?
• It is possible to direct attention to an
  environmental feature without directly looking at
  it
• Remember, eye-movement recordings identify focal
  vision not peripheral vision
• It is not possible to make an eye movement
  without also making a shift in attention

15
How We Select Visual Cues?

• Visual search and intended actions
• An active search for regulatory conditions
  based on action goal
• e.g. Research by Bekkering Neggers (2002)
  showed different visual search patterns for the
  action goals pointing to an object and grasping
  the object
• Feature integration theory
• Initially search according to specific features
  (e.g., color, shape)
• Direct attentional spotlight on environment
  (wide or narrow focus)
• features of interest pop out

16
Visual Search and Action Preparation

• Visual search picks up cues that influence 3
  aspects of action preparation
• Action selection
• Constraining of the selected action
• Timing of action initiation
• Note how these three preparation processes
  influenced by visual search in
• Open motor skills
• Closed motor skills

See examples in the textbook
17
Visual Search and Action Preparation

• Visual search picks up cues that influence 3
  aspects of action preparation
• Action selection
• Constraining of the selected action
• Timing of action initiation
• Note how these three preparation processes
  influenced by visual search in
• Open motor skills
• Closed motor skills

See examples in the textbook
18
Training Visual Search Strategies

• Search strategies can be learned, however, they
  must be specific to an activity.
• There is little evidence of benefit derived from
  generalized visual training programs
• It ignores the general finding that experts
  recognize specific patterns more readily than do
  novices
• Visual search success is experience based
• Often results from implicit learning of relevant
  visual cues