Research Stages

1
Research Stages

• 1. Posing and developing a problem needing a
  solution
• 2. Reviewing past research and writings about
  that problem or subject
• 3. Identifying worthy questions previous
  investigators havent answered
• 4. Devising the best method to seek answers to
  these questions

2
Research Stages (2)

• 5. Gathering the necessary information to answer
  the research questions.
• 6. Analyzing that information.
• 7. Presenting the results of the inquiry.
• 8. Considering the meaning and implications of
  these results to further knowledge of the subject
  or theory.

3
Reviewing the Literature

• Identify relevant field/fields.
• Aim is to cover all that is currently known about
  field/fields.
• Critical, yielding evidence of omissions,
  questionable research, unanswered questions.
• Review is prior to main research but continues
  throughout the research.

4
Defining the Research Question

• - Hypothesis
• -A minimum of two variables independent
  (antecedent, presumed cause) and dependent
  (consequent, presumed effect).
• - A conceptual definition terms used to describe
  the variable.
• - An operational definition, procedures we follow
  to observe or to measure the variables.

5
Message /Artifact-Oriented 1

• Archival/documentary
• Library/documentary
• Historical primary and secondary sources
• (biographical, movement or idea, regional,
  institutional, case-study etc.)
• Critical/rhetorical research interprets and
  evaluates communication events and their
  consequences

6
Message/Artifact-Oriented 2

• Legal/Policy Research (historical and critical).
• Secondary analysis (analyses existing data).
• Conversation analysis (interactions, rules of
  interaction, language).
• Textual analysis (text-audience).
• Content analysis (counting, genre and narrative
  construction).

7
Survey/Interview Research

• Data-collection methods personal and telephone
  interviews, mail questionnaires,
  self-administered survey. Includes polls,
  ratings, focus groups.
• Sampling
• random simple, systematic, stratified, cluster
  non-probability purposive, quota, accidental
• Questionnaire design instructions, clarity,
  distinctiveness, transitions, exhaustive options,
  presentation.

8
People or Behavior-Oriented 1

• Observational
• ethnography (behavioral regularities)
• participant observation (insider perspective)
• unobtrusive observation
• network analysis (behavioral interactions)
• verbal and nonverbal coding (e.g.
  self-disclosure kinesics).

9
People or Behavior-Oriented 2

• Experimental
• Observations under controlled conditions
  experimenters control all relevant factors other
  than the one being studied.
• Pretest-Posttest control-group design
  e.g.individuals randomly assigned to one of two
  groups, of which one is subjected to experimental
  condition
• Laboratory or field research

10
Validity/Reliability

• Validity measuring what we intend to measure
• content criterion-relatedconstruct
• Reliabilityrefers to how dependable, stable,
  consistent, and repeatable measures are in a
  study or across studies
• test-retest, internal consistency, parallel,
• inter-rater reliability.