Victim Responses

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Victim Responses

• Psychology of Crime

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Impact of Sex Assault

• Common Reactions to Rape
• No longer feel safe
• Loss of control over life as it was before
• Loss of self-worth feeling damaged
• Isolation/loneliness
• Distrust dont feel safe with anyone
• Guilt must have done something to provoke the
  attack

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Impact of Sex Assault

• Failure let down self, family, and friends
• Shame/humiliation feeling unclean
• Anger/outrage at the rapist, advocate,
  unsympathetic people, and/or God
• Fear of being attacked again, of the stigma as
  a rape victim, of own anger and thoughts of
  retaliation
• Embarrassment over physical details of the
  rape, over admitting they were raped

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Impact of Sex Assault

• Depression as a result of a loss of hope, loss
  of meaning in life
• Sleeplessness/nightmares
• Phobias intense fears about things associated
  with the rape (e.g., fear of leaving the house)
• Fear of spiritual abandonment b/c rape
  happened, God has abandoned him/her
• Suicidal ideation

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Rape Trauma Syndrome

• Rape Trauma Syndrome The emotional,
  psychological, and social impact of rape
• Immediately After Rape
• Victims may exhibit fear, anger, and/or outrage,
  or
• By adopting a controlled style of response,
  exhibit little visible reaction

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Rape Trauma Syndrome

• First few days/weeks
• Victim may experience bruising and soreness,
  especially in the neck, throat, arms and legs
  gynecological
• Disturbance in sleep patterns, including getting
  to sleep, crying out at night, and mumbling
  during sleep headaches fatigue
• Victims may report feeling distressed, irritable,
  and jumpy

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Rape Trauma Syndrome

• Loss of appetite is also common
• Victims may also experience sense of
  disorganization in which their lifestyles are
  disrupted by the rape crisis
• Emotionally fear dominates, but shame,
  humiliation, degradation, guilt, anger,
  self-blame and revenge are also common

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Rape Trauma Syndrome

• Long term
• Victims attempt to reorganize their lives but
  typically have difficulty returning to their
  daily schedule of activities
• General sleeplessness may continue, marked by
  dreams and nightmares
• Fears and phobias may develop
• Sexual concerns are widespread

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Rape Trauma Syndrome

• Those close to victims
• Parents/spouses may exhibit physical and
  emotional symptoms similar to victims
• Close relationships are altered as loved ones
  struggle to cope with the crime and victim
• Family and friends may become over-protective or
  patronizing
• Pre-existing intimate relationships may be
  destroyed

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Stages of Adjustment

• SHOCK Im numb
• DENIAL This cant have happened
• ANGER What did I do? Why me?
• BARGAINING Pretend it didnt happen
• DEPRESSION I feel so dirty and worthless
• ACCEPTANCE Life can go on
• ASSIMILATION Its part of my life
• Adapted from Raped, Deborah Roberts, Zondervan
  Publishing House, 1981, pp 157-159

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Behavioural and Psychological responses

• Behavioural Responses- Changes in normal
  behaviour, staying in, fear of strangers,
•  
• Psychological responses - fear and anger,
  depression right up to post traumatic stress
  disorder ( PTSD)(Learn the symptoms) Rape Trauma
  syndrome.

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Specific Symptoms include

• Intrusive thoughts - re-experiencing flashbacks,
  nightmares, generally unable to stop thinking
  about the event.
• Avoidant behaviour - avoiding situations that may
  trigger memories of the event, loss of interest
  in any pleasurable activities, feelings of
  numbness in response to everything.

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Specific Symptoms include

• Feelings - pointlessness, increased anxiety, fear
  of the event happening again, shame, guilt and
  bitterness.
• Behaviour - inability to make decisions,
  irritability, lack of concentration, anger and
  sometimes violent outbursts.
• Physical effects - physical illness, depression,
  hyperactivity and high stress reactions,
  increased smoking, drinking or drug use.

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Factors that increase the distress

• if the assault is sexual,
• if there is stalking involved,
• if the victim is homeless or a drug abuser,
• if the victim was already anxious or depressed
  (Robinson et al, 1998).

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MacLeod and Paton (1999)

• the post-event cognitions of the victim are key
  to the recovery.
• These include the following
• Blame attribution - self-blame actually
  encourages the victim to feel that they must
  avoid similar incidents in the future.
• Perceived control - feeling that they have
  control of future situations is important. But
  self-blame with low feelings of control leads to
  a fall in self-esteem, and problems with
  recovery.
• Counterfactual thinking - the process of mentally
  undoing the event to produce a better outcome
  (counterfactual thinking) is only helpful if the
  victim has perceived control over future such
  events.

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Central concepts for this topic

• Learned helplessness,
• pathology of power,
• attribution of blame by victim towards
  themselves,
• Just world' hypothesis.
• Interference with our security and safety (one of
  Maslow's needs)

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Learned Helplessness and Depression

• Seligman (1975) was experimenting on dogs,
  pairing tones with electric shocks.
• They prevented the dogs from escaping from the
  shock, and discovered that after a while 65 of
  the dogs did not try to escape when either the
  tone or shock was given.
• Seligman argued that the dogs had learned
  helplessness
• He argued that depression was a form of learned
  helplessness, in effect a conditioned response.
• It was argued that depressed people had learned
  that whatever they did was futile, and they had
  no control over their lives.

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Criticism of Learned Helplessness and Depression

• This theory was criticised as it was pointed out
  that helpless people do not necessarily become
  depressed.
• It doesnt seem to explain the guilt and self
  blame many depressed people feel (Carson Adams,
  1981).
• How can you feel guilty about things you have no
  control over ?
• The theory was reformulated to include
  attribution.
• Attributions were supposedly internal ("it's my
  fault"), stable ("things can't change"), and
  global (this affects everything).
• However, research has shown that depression tends
  to correlate with external locus of control.
• And there is no evidence that these are causal
  effects.

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Just world hypothesis
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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• In its simplest form, it states that "individuals
  have a need to believe that they live in a world
  where people generally get what they deserve and
  deserve what they get" (Lerner, 1978, p.1030).
• More specifically, the just world theory has
  implications in how it may help people maintain
  the belief that their world is stable and
  orderly.
• Growing up, most of us have been taught that hard
  work and virtue always pay off.

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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• In addition, most of us believe that good is
  rewarded and evil is punished.
• Therefore, it is not very hard to see that we may
  have come to believe that those who do well in
  life are good and those who fail must somehow
  deserve their failure.
• Subsequently, the just world hypothesis serves
  an important adaptive function in our life in
  that it helps us to maintain our belief that we
  deserve what ever happens.

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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• Even though rape is a prevalent crime in our
  society today, as more than 787,000 women were
  raped or sexually assaulted in the last two years
  alone, many rapes still go unreported.
• This could be, in part, due to the phenomenon of
  "victim blaming" becoming so common in our
  society.

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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• individuals who have become the victims of
  misfortune are often judged by outside observers
  as being responsible for their own fate.
• Past research indicates (Lerner and Miller, 1978
  Kleinke and Meyer, 1990 Kopper, 1996) that
  victims of rape, like other victims, are often
  blamed by others for their misfortune.

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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• Research has shown that the phenomenon of blaming
  rape victims is related in part to rape myth
  acceptance (Burt, 1980 Kopper, 1996) and a
  belief in a just world (Lerner and Miller, 1978
  Kleinke and Meyer, 1996).

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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• Individuals that have a strong belief in a just
  world can have this belief challenged when they
  encounter a victim of random misfortune such as a
  rape victim.
• The individual wants to believe that the world is
  a safe, just place where people get what they
  deserve and deserve what they get.
• Even when evidence suggests otherwise, the
  individual is very reluctant to give up this
  belief that the world is not just.

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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• In the face of contradicting evidence, research
  suggests (Kleinke and Meyer, 1996) that people
  with a high belief in a just world will do one of
  two things
• either they will try to eliminate the suffering
  of the innocent victims
• or else they will derogate them for their fate.
• Since it is impossible to reverse the crime of
  rape, and thus relieve the victim of her
  suffering, the rape victim is often subjected to
  derogation and blame.

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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• In this manner, the person who believes in a just
  world can maintain this belief as there is no
  longer a suffering person, but a woman who
  deserves her misfortune.
• The individual may blame the victim on any number
  of dimensions including
• her clothing (i.e. revealing blouse, short
  skirt, etc.),
• her behavior, (i.e. drinking, flirting, etc.)
• or her personality (i.e. she is a liar, she
  wanted attention, etc.).

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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• Many of these attributions are supported and
  perpetuated by the acceptance of cultural rape
  myths by our society (Burt, 1980).
• In this manner, the person who believes in a
  just world can sufficiently maintain the belief
  in a culturally acceptable way as, in the eyes of
  our society, there is no longer an innocent
  victim, but a woman who is deserving of her fate.

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If a woman dressed like this was raped a believer
in a Just world would most likely blame the
victim not the rapist. What do you think?
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just world hypothesis Lerner (1965)

• It must be noted, however, that belief in a just
  world does not always mean derogation and blaming
  of the victim.
• Lerner and Miller (1978) suggest that at least
  three factors must be present in order for a
  victim to be derogated by an outsider.

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just world hypothesis First Factor

• First, the authors argue that the victim must be
  seen as an innocent victim in order for
  derogation to occur.
• If victims can easily be seen as responsible for
  causing their suffering, then there is no need to
  derogate them because there is no violation of
  the just world hypothesis.

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just world hypothesis First Factor

• The victim acted in a manner that brought about
  the resulting fate and this is in line with what
  a belief in a just world emphasizes people get
  what they deserve.
• On the other hand, an innocent victim, one who
  can not be readily blamed for the resulting fate,
  violates the belief in a just world and is
  subjected to derogation.

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just world hypothesis Second Factor

• The authors argue that a second factor that can
  affect the derogation of a victim by someone who
  believes in a just world is the attractiveness or
  status of the victim.
• Their research suggests that victims who are
  highly attractive or that enjoy a particularly
  high status are derogated less than less
  attractive or lower status victims.
• A possible explanation for this discrepancy is
  empathy felt for the victim.

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just world hypothesis Third Factor

• Finally, the authors argue that belief in a just
  world will not lead to victim derogation when
  the observer sees some similarities with the
  victim.
• For example, Kleinke and Meyer (1990) found that
  women, regardless of their belief in a just
  world, tend not to blame or derogate victims of
  rape. Mens belief in a just world, however, is
  strongly correlated with victim derogation.

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Maslows hierarchy of needs
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Maslows hierarchy of needs

• Survival. People need food, water, oxygen,
  shelter, clothing and sometimes medical care.
  They also need to want to survive (the will to
  live).
• Safety and Security. People need to live in a
  place that is as physically safe as possible, and
  to feel secure in their environment. They need to
  know that there is some order in the world and
  that the world "makes sense."
• Love and Belongingness. People need to feel
  connected to other people, and to know that they
  are loved and cared for.

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Maslow hierarchy of needs

• Self-Esteem and Meaning. People need to feel good
  about themselves, keep learning as much as
  possible and know that their lives have meaning.
• Self-actualization. Ultimately, people want to
  feel as though they are the best people they can
  possibly be, given their unique attributes.

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Maslow and Victims of Crime

• What is the state of the persons physical
  health? When a person is healthy, he can cope
  with life more effectively. Even a minor problem
  like a cold can make life miserable.
• What are the persons physical abilities? It is
  important to focus more on what a person can do
  than what she cannot do, and to make the most of
  that ability. If a person has a disability, such
  as an inability to walk, has she found other
  effective ways of getting around?

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Maslow and Victims of Crime

• How well is the person able to think and process
  information? We all have different IQs, but we
  all think to one degree or another. Has the
  person been given the information he needs to get
  his needs met, and has that information been
  provided in a way that he can best understand it?

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Maslow and Victims of Crime

• How much control does the person have over her
  emotions (feelings)? When a persons feelings are
  "out of control" that person feels "out of
  control." If she is having difficulty with her
  emotions, is she receiving the mental health help
  she needs?

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Maslow and Victims of Crime

• Does the person have a spiritual connection?
  Research has shown that when people have a belief
  that there is something in the world greater and
  stronger than they are, they tend to heal faster
  from physical and emotional pain, and do not feel
  as though they are all alone in the world.

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Maslow and Victims of Crime

• What kind of educational background or life
  experience does the person have? If a person has
  been taught what she needs to know to get her
  basic human needs met, or if she has learned to
  do as much as she can for herself, she will
  probably feel as though she is a more competent
  person. This can give her a sense of pride in
  herself.

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Maslow and Victims of Crime

• Does the person have support from family,
  friends, service providers or others in the
  community? If not, he may feel overwhelmed. If
  so, that support can help him with the areas of
  his life where he might not be able to do
  everything by himself.

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Maslow and Victims of Crime

• What is the persons personality like? Some
  people find the simplest of lifes tasks
  difficult and stressful. Others find them
  challenging or even fun. People who view life
  more positively are usually able to get their
  needs met more effectively.

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MacLeod and Paton (1999)

• see the post-event cognitions of the victim as
  key to the recovery. These include the following
  
•         Blame attribution - self-blame
  actually encourages the victim to feel that they
  must avoid similar incidents in the future.
•         Perceived control - feeling that they
  have control of future situations is important.
  But self-blame with low feelings of control leads
  to a fall in self-esteem, and problems with
  recovery.

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MacLeod and Paton (1999)

•         Counterfactual thinking - the process
  of mentally undoing the event to produce a better
  outcome (counterfactual thinking) is only helpful
  if the victim has perceived control over future
  such events.

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The end