Australia

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Australia
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• Part One The Land and the People of the Dreaming
• The Land
• 1. The natural environment of Australia

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• The continent of Australia lies between
  equatorial South East Asia and the Antarctic. It
  is the largest island in the world, and is also
  the smallest, flattest and driest continent in
  the world.

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• 2. The distinctive features of the land the
  Great Dividing Range and the Hreat Barrier Reef.

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• 3. The distivctive animals of the land the
  platypus(???), the kangaroo, the koala, the
  wombat(????)

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II. The Peoples

• 1. The Peoples of the Dreaming belong to over 500
  different groups or nations with different
  languages and cultures but they were bound
  together by their belief in the Dreaming.

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• 2. The Dreamtime is most often used to refer to
  the time before time, or the time of the
  creation of all things, while Dreaming refers
  to an individuals or groups set of beliefs or
  spirituality.

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• 3. It is based on the central principle that
  people who live on the continent have special
  responsibilities to the land --- that the land
  owns them and that they hold it in trust as the
  home of their creator.

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III. The Impact of Colonization

• 1. The concept of Terra Nullius the term is from
  Latin, which means a land that is owned by no
  one. The British declared the Australian
  continent Terra Nullius to justify their invasion
  of the indigenous peoples land

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• 2.The impact of colonization on the indigenous
  people
• the indigenous people were dispossessed of the
  land they had lived on for tens of thousands of
  years

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• they were killed in violent skirmishes and
  massacres
• they contracted the diseases brought by the white
  settlers and as a result, their population fell
  drastically.

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IV. The policies of segregation, exclusion and
assimilation

• 1. By the mid-1800s the government of violence
  changed to policies of segregation and exclusion.

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• 2. By the beginning of the 20th century the
  policy of protection had been replaced by the
  policy of assimilation.

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• It was founded on the belief that the white
  culture was progressive and superior while the
  indigenous culture was inferior.

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• 3. The double loss of traditional culture and
  exclusion from mainstream Australian society and
  culture led to Aboriginal people being labelled
  as lazy, stupid and drunken and dirty.

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Part Two Religion in Australia Today

• The Dreaming
• The Dreaming means that people do not own the
  land the land owns the people who have
  responsibilities of guardianship towards it.

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II. Protestantism

• It is the most dominant form of religion in
  modern Australian society. It was the religion of
  governing colonial class in Australia.

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• It promotes values such as rationalism,
  individualism, hard work, worldly success and
  ascetism.

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• Though its values are paradoxical, they fit well
  with the principles of Capitalism, and support
  the development of capitalism.

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III. Catholism

• Australian Catholism was transported to the
  colony with the convicts. It has replaced the
  Anglicanism as the most demographic dominant
  reliogious group.

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• In the second half of the19th century, the
  Catholics from Ireland played an important role
  in establishing the working class culture in
  Australia and in creating unionism and the
  political party that represented the working
  class.

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IV. Fundamentalism

• It is basically a commitment to conservatism. It
  is often found in societies that are undergoing
  rapid changes, where Fundamentalists want to
  maintain or create what was the fundamental
  values of an earlier culture.

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V. Anglicanism

• It was the religion of the British colonizers as
  well as the convicts and free settlers. It was
  the dominant religion in Australia throughout the
  19th and most of the 20th centuries. It has lost
  its demographic supremacy to Catholicism.

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VI. Secularism

• There is a steady imcrease in the number of
  people who have no formal commitment to any
  religion. Most of the people do not attend church
  services regularly today.

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• However, Australia still can be seen as a
  religious society, instead of a secular society,
  as over three quarters of the Australian
  population is associated with some form of
  religion.

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Part Three From Penal Colony to Free Migration

• I. The beginning of the penal colony
• 1. The first period of the colonization of
  Australia, lasting from 1788 to the 1830s, was
  based largely on the unfree labor of the
  convicts.

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• New South Wales, Tasmania ans Queensland were
  established as convict colonies Victoria and
  South Australia, established in 1830s, were
  settled as free, or non-convict, colonies.

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• Western Australia, established in 1828 as a free
  colony, turned to convict labor in 1850 and
  become a convict colony for 19 years until 1869.

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• Convict partnerships were not the only form of
  family of this era. There were also free
  families of people who came over with the
  transported convicts, families of soldiers or
  administrators of the colony or people who
  arrived as free settlers.

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• II. From convict transportation to
  freemigration
• 1. By the early 1820s there was pressure from the
  majority of the free settlers in NSW to replace
  convict transportation with free migration and
  to establish a free market economy.

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• 2. The 1930s and 1840s formed the early years of
  the modern (non-convict) system of the Australian
  Political Economy.

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• 3. Wakefield Scheme
• It was devised by Edward Wakefield, a convict and
  theorist on colonization, to solve the problem of
  labor shortage in colonial Australia

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• His proposal on the development of colonial
  Australia was that land should not be freely and
  cheaply available.

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• It should be sold at suffient price to ensure
  that only men of capital could afford it. The
  money earned from selling land should be used to
  assist selected migrants to Australia.

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• Part Four Australia as a Liberal Democratic
  Society
• I. Difference as the central value of the
  Australian society

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• Ausrtalians understand and conduct life upon a
  basic commitment to difference. The emphasis is
  upon the principle that there are different ways
  if thinking and knowing about the world there is
  neither absolute truth nor one single way to run
  the country.

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• II. The formation of Australian political system
  
• 1. The Washminsterform of polity

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• It is a mixture of the U S. Washington system of
  government and the British Westminster system.
  This means that the political structure of the
  government is based on a Federation of State with
  a three tier system of government.

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• 2. The three-tier system of the Australian
  government
• The Australian federation has three tiers in its
  government system at the federal level, there
  are the Australian Parliamant and the government.

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• In the second tier are the state governments and
  their legislatures. In the third tier are the
  local government bodies at the city, town and
  shire levels.

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• 3. The advantages of the pluralist form of
  government
• 1) It enables the citizens to exercise their
  political right to choose their own government

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• 2) It secures transparency and accountability of
  the government
• 3) It provides for an alternative government
  which can competently take over the state affairs
  should any government collapase

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• 4) The citizens can exert their power through
  major interest groups.
• 4. The Constitutional Crisis of 1975

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• It was caused by the dismissal of the Whitlam
  government by the Governor-General, which was
  elected by people.

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• When the Senate refused to pass the Supply Bill
  granting money for the operation of the
  government, Sir John Kerr, the Governor- General
  dismissed the Whitlam government.

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• This dismissal was generally interpreted as a
  flouting of the uncodified conventions of
  government and caused political and popular
  animosity.

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• 5.Whistle-blowers they are often experts in both
  senior and lower levels of bureaucracies. They
  discover in their branch of the organization some
  problems of corruption and inefficiency and try
  to expose them.

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• 6.The relations between Ministers and Heads of
  Department
• Theoretically speaking, the public servants
  should be under the authority of the elected
  ministers

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• The Minister is responsible for making policies,
  and the Head of Department is responsible for
  implementing the policies.

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• As the Head of Department tends to be an expert
  specialist who has been working in the area for a
  long time, the minister is often in danger of
  being influenced by the adminstrative expertise
  of the Head of Department.

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• 7. Reasons for the increase of the government
  role in Australian political economy before
  1980s
• 1) the expansion of education, health and social
  welfare services

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• 2) the introduction of social security
  programmes
• 3) the increase in government regulations of
  business and finance and the supply of labor

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• 4) the intriduction of a more complex system of
  justice and law and order.
• 8. Political economic changes in the shift to
  economic rationalism

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• 1) financial regulations 2) the privatization
  and corporationization of public service 3) the
  end of centralized wage fixing system 4) cuts in
  the size of the public sector and the sale of
  public assets.

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Part Five From Racism to Multiculturalism

• I. Ethnicity and inequality
• 1. In mid-19th century migrants were
  predominantly British, and those who benefited
  from assisted migration were almost all from
  Britain.

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• 2. By the 1870s, the Chinese constituted the
  third largest group in Australia, after the
  Britsh (including the Irish) and Germans. Chinese
  migrants were subjected to racism at many levels.
  (target of physical attacks)

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• 3. Pacific Islanders experienced a differnet
  history of racism in Australia. They were
  kidnapped by the Blackbirders and sold as
  indentured laborers to work in the sugar
  industry.

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• The Pacific Island Laborers Act of 1901 was part
  of instituional discrimination the White
  Australia Policy.

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• 4.The White Australia Policy it was officially
  adopted by the Commonwealth of Ausrtalia in 1901,
  in the Immigration Restriction Act. It was made
  to stop Chinese and other non-British migrants
  from entering and settling down in Australia.

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• This was mainly achieved through a dictation test
  in a European language. The White Australia
  Policy was officially abolished in 1973.

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II. Multiculturalism from 1973

• 1. It was adopted in 1973. It was comprised of
  three areas of policy Cultural Identity, which
  means the right to express and share ones
  cultural heritage

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• Social Justice, thr right to equal treatment and
  opportunites and Economic Efficiency, the need
  to maintain and develop the skills of all
  Australians regardless of their backgrounds.

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• 2. Freedom Rides
• In the mid-1960s, an aboriginal university
  student led a group of white university students
  to the outback of Australia to demonstrate
  against racial segregation.

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• Their activities helped to raise the public
  awareness of racism and segregation in Ausralian
  society, and demonstrated the need for social
  change.

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New Zealand

• Part One Land, People and History
• I. Land

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• 1. Situated in the southwest Pacific Ocean, New
  Zealand is a large, long group of island, which
  is made up of two main land masses, the North
  Island and the South Island, separated by Cook
  Strait.

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• 2. New Zealand is in the southern temperate
  latitudes midway between the Equator and the
  South Pole. The capital city, Wellington, is the
  southernmost and windiest national capital city
  in the world. The climate is maritime.

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• 3.The North Island
• It is one of the three parts of New Zealand. It
  is famous for spectacular volcanos and the
  thermal region. About three-quarters of New
  Zealands population live on the North Island.

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II. People

• 1. The Kiwi
• The Kiwi is the name of one of the native birds
  in New Zealand. It is flightless. In colloquial
  English the Kiwi, capitalized, is also used to
  refer to a New Zealander.

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• 2. The Resource Management Act
• It reflects New Zealanders environmental
  awareness. Under the Act, law governing land, air
  and water resources are combined together to
  ensure the sustainable management of natural
  resources.

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• It focuses on the effects of human activities on
  the whole environment as well. The Act came into
  force in 1991. With it, New Zealand leads the
  world in environmental legislation.

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• 3. Maoritanga
• It is a the Maori word for Maori culture. It
  refers to all the elements of the rich cultural
  heritage of the indigenous people in New Zealand,
  including their language, customs and traditions.

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Part Two Poplitical System, Education and Economy

• I. Government
• 1. The Parliament
• Since 1950 Parliament has had a single chamber,
  the House of Representatives.

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• Its functions include passing laws, supervising
  the governments administration and receiving
  petitions from citizens with grievances.
  Currently there are 120 MPs, all elected by
  voters. Six of these are Maori MPs, who represent
  Maori voters only.

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• 2. New Zealand has no written constitution. The
  Constitution Act 1986 defines the relationship
  between the legislative (Parliament), executive
  (Government departments and agencies) and
  judicial (the courts) roles of government.

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• 3. For more than half a century, the two main
  parties in the House of Representatives have been
  the National Party (centre-right) and the Labor
  Party (centre-left).

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• 4.The Parliamentary election in 1996 was held for
  the first time under the proportional
  representation system known as MMPR (Mixed Member
  Proportional Representation?????????).

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• Under this new election system, each voter has
  two votes, the first one for a candidate in their
  electorate, the second one for a political party.

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• The second vote, when counted nationwide,
  decides the number of seats each party will take
  in Parliament.

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• MMPR offers an opportunity for a range of
  parties to gain seats by achieving at least 5 of
  the party vote.

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• Neither the National Party nor the Labor Party
  has held a majority of seats in Parliament since
  1996. Government has been a coalition of at least
  two parties.

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• 5.The Ombudsman (???????) is appointed by
  Parliament to investigate peoples complaints
  against government departments and local
  authorities, and to ensure that appropriate
  official imformation is freely available to the
  public under the Official Information Act.

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II. Education

• 1. Education in New Zealand is compulsory
  between the ages of 6 and 16, and tuition in
  state schools is free to New Zealand residents.

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• 2. An elected board of trustees governs each
  shchool. State schools charge fees to foreign
  students who are not New Zealand residents,
  except for exchange students.

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• 3. The largest school in New Zealand, the
  Correspondence School, provides distance
  education for students from early childhood
  upwards.

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• 4. State schools may be co-educational or
  single-sex, while private schools are often
  single-sex, and are usually connected to a
  religion.

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• 5. There are 9 universities in New Zealand. Any
  citizen or permanent resident may attend
  university when they are over 20, even if they
  have passed no exams.

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• 6.There are 23 polytechnics in New Zealand, which
  provide a range of vocational and academic
  courses that cover a large number of subjects at
  various levels up to degree level.

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III. Economy

• I. Agriculture
• 1. New Zealand is a rugged country, with little
  flat, naturally arable land, and its reputation
  as the worlds largest farm has been the result
  of hard work.

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• 2. Forestry and Fishing
• Forestry and fishing constitute new natural
  resource-based industries with exciting potential
  for further development.

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• Forests cover more than a quarter of New Zealand.
  Forest products are important earners of overseas
  funds. Australia, Japan and Korea are the largest
  customers.

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• New Zealands Exclusive Economic Zone extends 200
  nautical miles seaward from the low water mark
  around New Zealand and its offshore islands.

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• It is one of the largest fishing areas in the
  world. There are a rich variety of sea species in
  the zone, of which 100 have great commercial
  values.

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• 3. Energy Rivers, geothermal steam contribute to
  the supply of electricity Natural gas windmills
  to produce electricity.

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• 4. Overseas trade with less than 4 million
  people, the nations well-being depends largely
  on meeting international standards of quality and
  competitiveness, and doing business free of trade
  barriers.