Learning: Some Key Terms

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Learning Some Key Terms

• Learning
• Relatively permanent change in behavior due to
  experience
• Does NOT include temporary changes due to
  disease, maturation, injury, or drugs since these
  do NOT qualify as learning

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Learning Some More Key Terms

• Response
• Any identifiable behavior
• Internal
• Faster heartbeat
• Observable
• Eating, scratching
• Antecedents
• Events that precede a response
• Consequences
• Effects that follow a response

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Section 1 Classical Conditioning

• Learning based on the pairs of stimuli with
  responses Deals with involuntary behaviors
• Ivan Pavlov
• Russian physiologist who initially was studying
  digestion
• Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were
  presented with meat powder
• Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent
  Conditioning
• Deals with production of a reflex (automatic,
  non-learned) reaction or response
• explains how a neutral stimulus can acquire the
  capacity to elicit (or draw forth) a response
  originally elicited by another stimulus

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Elements of Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that
  elicits an unconditioned response without
  previous conditioningPavlovs meat powder.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral
  stimulus that has acquired the capacity to elicit
  a conditioned response...the sound of a tone.
• Unconditioned Response (UCR) - an unlearned
  reaction to a UCS that occurs without previous
  conditioningsalivating.
• Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned reaction to
  a conditioned stimulussalivating to the tone.
  (first called a psychic reflex by Pavolv)

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FIGURE 6.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian
conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the
dogs mouth to a lever that activates a recording
device (far left). During conditioning, various
stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed
in front of the dog. The device pictured here is
more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his
early experiments.
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Pavlovs Famous Experiment
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Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition
• Training period when a response is strengthened
• Extinction
• Weakening of a conditioned response through
  removal of reinforcement
• Spontaneous Recovery
• Reappearance of a learned response following
  apparent extinction

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• Higher Order Conditioning
• A conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce
  further learning
• Expectancy
• Anticipation concerning future events or
  relationships
• Ex. Henry expects dinner when we arrive home at
  night

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More Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Stimulus Generalization
• A tendency to respond to stimuli that are
  similar, but not identical to, a conditioned
  stimulus
• Example cat salivates at the sight of dish
  detergent box as if it were his cat food box
• Stimulus Discrimination
• The learned ability to respond differently to
  similar stimuli
• Example Pumpkin will only drink the water served
  to her in stemware not from a bowl!

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Classical Conditioning in Humans

• Phobia
• Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of a
  specific situation or object
• Example arachnophobia, fear of spiders
• Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)
• Replaces CR in the conditioning process
• Learned emotional reaction to a previously
  neutral stimulus

FIGURE 6.7 Hypothetical example of a CER becoming
a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and is
frightened by it (b). Fear generalizes to other
household pets (c) and later to virtually all
furry animals (d).
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Classical Conditioning in Humans (Continued)

• Desensitization
• Exposing phobic people gradually to feared
  stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed
• Ex. show picture of spider, spider in cage,
  spider outside, touch spider
• Vicarious Classical Conditioning
• Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by
  observing anothers emotional reactions
• Most people are afraid of spiders because their
  parents are afraid of spiders

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Section 2 3 Operant Conditioning
(Instrumental Learning)

• Learning based on the consequences of responding
  Based on voluntary behaviors
• Edward L. Thorndikes Law of Effect - if a
  response in the presence of a stimulus leads to
  satisfying effects, the association between the
  stimulus and the response is strengthened
• Responses that lead to desired effects are
  repeated
• Those that lead to undesired effects are not
• B.F. Skinner principle of reinforcement -
  organisms tend to repeat those responses that are
  followed by favorable consequences, or
  reinforcement
• Reinforcement contingencies - the circumstances,
  or rules, that determine whether responses lead
  to the presentation of reinforcers.
• Operant chamber (Skinner Box) - enclosure in
  which an animal can make a specific response that
  is recorded, while the consequences of the
  response are systematically controlled. Rats, for
  example, press a lever.

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Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning

• Acquisition - refers the initial stage of
  learning
• Shaping - consists of the reinforcement of closer
  and closer approximations (Successive
  Approximations) of a desired responsekey in pet
  tricks.
• Extinction - gradual weakening and disappearance
  of a response tendency, because the response is
  no longer followed by a reinforcer
• Stimulus Control
• Generalization - occurs when an organism responds
  to both the stimulus and one similar to it
• Discrimination - occurs when an organism responds
  to one stimulus, but not another one similar to
  it
• Operant Reinforcer - Any event that follows a
  response and increases its likelihood of
  recurring
• Response-Contingent Reinforcement - Reinforcement
  given only when a particular response occurs

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Reinforcement - consequences that strengthen
responses

• Reinforcement ? Increasing a response
• Positive reinforcement - response is followed by
  rewarding stimulus
• Negative reinforcement response is followed by
  removal of an aversive stimulus
• Primary Reinforcers
• events that are inherently reinforcing because
  they satisfy biological needs (not learned)
• Secondary Reinforcers
• events that acquire reinforcing qualities by
  being associated with primary reinforcers
  (learned conditioned reinforcement)

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More Reinforcers

• Intracranial Stimulation (ICS)
• Natural primary reinforcer
• Involves direct electrical activation of brains
  pleasure centers
• Token Reinforcer
• Tangible secondary reinforcer
• Example money, gold stars, poker chips
• Dont lose value quickly like primary reinforcers
• Used with troubled children, adults in special
  programs, and elementary schools
• Social Reinforcer
• Provided by other people
• Example learned desires for attention and
  approval
• Some side effects of reinforcement
• Escape learning
• an organism learns to perform a behavior that
  decreases or ends aversive stimulation (escape
  from a painful conversation).
• Avoidance learning
• an organism learns to prevent or avoid some
  aversive stimulation (avoid
  the painful person altogether).

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Punishment consequences that weaken a response

• Punishment ? Decreasing a response
• Punishment
• (positive) punishment - presentation of an
  aversive stimulus (spanking)
• (negative) punishment - removal of a rewarding
  stimulus (taking away TV) also called the
  response cost
• Problems with punishment
• it can trigger strong emotional responses
  (anxiety, anger, resentment, hostility)
• physical punishment can lead to an increase in
  aggressive behavior
• My personal favorite Dont hit your brother!,
  immediately followed by a smack upside the head.
  Talk about mixed signals!

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Using Punishment Wisely

• 1. Apply punishment during or immediately after
  misbehavior
• 2. Be consistent
• 3. Use the minimum punishment necessary
• 4. Avoid harsh punishment
• 5. Dont rely only on punishment
• 6. Expect anger from a punished person
• 7. Punish with kindness and respect
• Keys to Effective Punishment
• Timing, consistency, and intensity
• Severe Punishment
• Intense punishment, capable of suppressing a
  response for a long period
• Mild Punishment
• Weak punishment
• Usually slows responses temporarily

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Schedules of Reinforcement/Punishment

• Continuous reinforcement - occurs when every
  instance of a designated response is reinforced
  (faster acquisition, faster extinction)
• Intermittent (partial) reinforcement - occurs
  when a designated response is reinforced only
  some of the time (greater resistance to
  extinction)
• Ratio schedules - require the organism to make
  the designated response a certain number of times
  to gain each reinforcer
• Fixed-ratio schedule - entails giving a
  reinforcer after a fixed number of non-reinforced
  responses
• Variable-ratio schedule - entails giving a
  reinforcer after a variable number of
  non-reinforced responses
• Interval schedules - require a time period to
  pass between the presentation of reinforcers
• Fixed-interval schedule - reinforcing the first
  response that occurs after a fixed time interval
  has elapsed
• Variable-interval schedule - giving the
  reinforcer for the first response after a
  variable time interval has elapsed.

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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.)

• Operant reinforcement most effective when given
  immediately after a correct response
• Effectiveness of reinforcement is inversely
  related to time elapsed after correct response
  occurs
• Response Chain
• A linked series of actions that leads to
  reinforcement (ex. dog runs obstacle course for a
  treat at the end)
• Superstitious Behavior
• Behavior that is repeated to produce
  reinforcement, even though it is not necessary
  (ex. used red pencil on a test and got an A so
  you use that color pencil for every test)

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When reinforcers seem to fail

• Negative Attention Seeking
• Using misbehavior to gain attention
• Most of the time your reinforcer hasnt failed,
  you just reinforced the wrong thing.
• Or what you thought was a punishment was really a
  reinforcer. (ex. teacher writing up a student for
  not having a pencil a plan sure to backfire!)

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Section 6 Cognitive Learning

• Higher-level learning involving thinking,
  knowing, understanding, and anticipating
• Cognitive Map
• Internal representation of an area (handy when
  you need to find an alternate route to work)
• Latent Learning
• Occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not
  demonstrated until reinforcement is provided
  (watching mom cook ? knowing how when your hungry
  at college)
• Rote Learning
• Takes place mechanically, through repetition and
  memorization, or by learning a set of rules
  (memorizing vocabulary)
• Discovery Learning
• Based on insight and understanding (acting out
  vocabulary words)

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Observational Learning (aka) Modeling (Albert
Bandura)

• Occurs by watching and imitating actions of
  another person or by noting consequences of a
  persons actions
• Occurs before direct practice is allowed
• Model
• Someone who serves as an example

Steps to Successful Modeling

• Pay attention to model and remember what was done
• Reproduce modeled behavior
• If a model is successful or his/her behavior is
  rewarded, behavior more likely to recur
• Once response is tried, normal reinforcement
  determines whether it will be repeated
• Bandura created modeling theory with classic
  Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments

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Modeling and the Media

• TV viewers are exposed to a lot of media violence
• If large groups of children watch a great deal of
  violence on TV or video games, they are more
  likely to behave aggressively

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FIGURE 6.25 This graph shows that preschoolers
who watched low levels of television violence
were less aggressive than average as young adults
when contacted 15 years later. In contrast,
preschoolers who watched high levels of
television violence were more aggressive than
average as young adults. The composite aggression
score includes measures of indirect aggression
(e.g., verbal abusiveness) and direct aggression
(physical aggression). (Data adapted from
Huesmann et al., 2003.)
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Self-Managed Behavior

• Premack Principle
• Any high frequency response used to reinforce a
  low frequency response (e.g., no TV until you
  finish your homework)
• Self-Recording
• Self-management based on keeping records of
  response frequencies (Ex. Write down every time
  you smoke a cigarette)
• This technique by itself can alter behavior,
  coming face to face with the real frequency of
  unwanted behavior can motivate change, watching
  the frequency decrease can be its own reward.