Wheat

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Wheat
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An annual plant of Gramineae or Poaceae
family Genus Triticum Species Triticum aestivum
L.
Wheat
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Types many kinds of wheat in the world today.
The two most common are common wheat, Triticum
aestivum, also known as bread wheat account for
some 95 of all the consumed wheat in the world
today and durum wheat T. turgidum ssp. durum,
which is used in pasta production.
Triticum aestivum or common wheat or Bread wheat
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T. turgidum T. durum (durum wheat)
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Dru na gu Dzongkha Bumthapkha Sharchopkha Lhotshamkha
Rice Bja/ray Thrung Bara Dhan
Maize Gheyza Ashom Aashum Maakai
Wheat Ka Ka Bong Gaow
Barley Naa/Nay nak Phemong Zaoun
Sweet Buckwheat Jarey Cha-rey Khala Methey Fapar
Bitter Buckwheat Bjo Brathma Gungtshung/ Braima Tithey Fapar
Finger millet Memja Kongpo Kongpo Kodo
Foxtail millet Yangra Ran Yangra Kaguni
Common millet Chham Cheyra Kodo
Amaranth Aaiam/Zim tse maap Moo/Lasom Lathey
Mustard Paeka Yungkar Mema Tori
Pulses Sem sem Sem chung rik Dal
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• Importance of wheat in the world
• wheat, rice and corn account for 75 of the
  worlds grain production and 56 of the worlds
  food energy.
• wheat is the second most-produced food among the
  cereal crops
• Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour
  for breads cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal,
  pasta, juice, noodles and for fermentation to
  make beer, alcohol, vodka or biofuel.
• Although wheat supplies much of the world's
  dietary protein and food supply it contains a
  protein called gluten coaliac diseases wheat
  allergy (sensitive)
• In Bhutan
• source of income, (3rd most important food crops
  grown in Bhutan after rice and maize).
• uses same as mentioned above

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Important growing countries
Top Ten Wheat Producers 2005(million metric ton) Top Ten Wheat Producers 2005(million metric ton)
 China 96
 India 72
 United States 57
 Russia 46
 France 37
 Canada 26
 Australia 24
 Germany 24
 Pakistan 22
 Turkey 21
World Total 626
SourceUN Food Agriculture Organisation (FAO) SourceUN Food Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
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In Bhutan
Source MoA, 2006 Agriculture Statistics.
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• Cropping system
• generally grown in dry land (53.9) as main crop
  from 300m to 3000masl.
• Also grown in wet land as secondary crop after
  rice (rice-wheat system, consists of 80), maize,
  potato in rotation with Buckwheat at higher
  altitude.
• significant part of the wheat crop is generally
  cut as green fodder for cattle, the remaining is
  harvested to supplement food consumption.
• For eg. Winter fodder up to 2500 masl for
  haymaking at elevations of 3500-4000 masl.

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• Origin
• 11000BC in middle east 4000 BC in asia, europe
  and NAmeriaca..earliest grown crop.
• In Bhutan believed to have been introduced from
  Tibet.
• History wild ancestor is Triticum boeticum,
  fertilized with wild grass called aegilop
  speltoids to give the modern wheat.

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• Species Varieties
• 18 species recognized
• Most important to agriculture are
• T. aestivum (common wheat) T.monococcum (Einkorn
  or Europena wheat), T. turgidum T. durum (durum
  wheat), T. compactum (club wheat) T. dicoccum
  (emmer wheat - wild sp. Wheat closely related
  to durum wheat).
• Genetics
• Some wheat species are diploid, with two
  sets of chromosomes, but many are stable
  polyploids, with four sets of chromosomes
  (tetraploid) or six (hexaploid).
• T. aestivum A hexaploid species that is the most
  widely cultivated in the world.
• T. durum The only tetraploid form of wheat
  widely used today, and the second most widely
  cultivated wheat.
• T. monococcum (Einkorn) A diploid species with
  wild and cultivated variants. Domesticated at the
  same time as emmer wheat, but never reached the
  same importance.
• T. dicoccon(Emmer) A tetraploid species,
  cultivated in ancient times but no longer in
  widespread use.

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• In India
• T.aestivum or vulgare (common bread or bread
  wheat) chapati bakery products grown all
  over India
• T.durum (durum wheat) suji, sphagetti
  macaroni grown in Central South
• T.dicoccum (emmer wheat) grown in South India.

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• In Bhutan
• Many landraces or indigenous wheat varieties
  replaced by Jaga ka
• All wheat varieties grown in the rice-wheat
  system are Introduced spring wheat grown during
  winter
• 1. Sonalika early maturing variety
  susceptible to yellow (stripe) or brown (leaf)
  rust.
• 2. Bajoka -1 2.
• 2a. Bajoka-1 recommended for medium low alt.
• matures 155-160 days
• Grows to a height of 80-85cm tall
• Yields 2.5 3.0 tons per hactare
• - moderately resistant to yellow and brown rusts.

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• Bajoka-2
• - recommended for low altitudes
• - matures 150-160 days
• - Grows to a height of 100cm tall
• - Yields 2.5 3.0 tons per hac
• - highly resistant to yellow and brown rusts

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• Dist. Features
• Sonalika and Bajoka variety
• Sonalika
• Height taller than Bajoka 12,
• Spike turns yellow, leaf blade bit bigger. In
• Bajoka
• Bajoka I spike remains white straight until
  maturity while spike bends at maturity for Bajoka
  2 but colour remains unchanged.

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Morphology

• Two distinct parts Root and Shoot system
• Root System Pry or temporary root system
• Secondary root system/permanent root system
• Starts with the formation of a radicle (embryonic
  root) at the time of seed germination
• Arises at the depth where the seed is planted
• absorbs nutrients for young seedling
• Growth progresses, the pry root system dies and
  is replaced by more permanent Secondary Root
  System (PRS)

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• Secondary Root System
• Arises at the point above the PRS as the main
  organ of absorption of nutrients for matured
  seedling/plant
• Arises near the soil surface at about 21-25 days
  after seed sowing (i.e. at the time of crown root
  initiation stage)

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• Shoot System all parts above the ground
• - Stems, leaves and inflorescence (flowering
  fruiting)
• Stem inflorescence culm
• 1. Stem round cylindrical, hollow except at
  the node (solid)
• 2. Leaves 4 parts Leaf sheath, leaf blade,
  ligule, auricle
• Leaf sheath basal part of the leaf surrounds
  the culm (stem) protects the growing point and
  auxillary buds from weather also provide
  support to culm (stem).

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http//www.missouriplants.com/Grasses/Triticum_aes
tivum_page.html
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• Leaf blade flattened, parallel venation
  function?
• Ligule soft membranous part at the junction of
  the sheath and the blade
• Auricle claw-like appendages projecting from
  the collar of the leaf.
• 3. Inflorescence flowering portion ear or
  head or spike consist of spikelet, florets,
  kernel
• spikelets are systematically arranged in a zigzag
  manner along a common axis (rachis)
• Wheat is a monoecious plant with perfect flowers.
  It reproduces sexually as a self-pollinated crop.

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• Spikelet composed of flowers called florets
• No. of florets in a spikelet vary from 1-5
• Florets in each spikelets are enclosed by two
  glumes

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• Florets outer covering lemma palea
• These are hardened, modified stems that protect
  the floral organs.
• The lemma is relatively larger than the palea.
• When the spikelet is closed, the lemma partly
  encloses the palea.
• The pointed end on top of the lemma is called an
  awn.

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• Grain or Kernel or caryopsis - fruit formed from
  a single carpel
• - The caryopsis is popularly called a grain and
  is the fruit typical of the family Poaceae (or
  Gramineae), such as wheat, rice, and corn.
• 3-10 mm in length, 3-5 mm in diameter
• Embryo rich in protein called gluten- coaliac
  diseases wheat allergy (sensitive) fats
• Bran testa or pericarp by-product of milling
  used as feeds.

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Carbohydrates     51.8 g
- Dietary fiber  13.2 g   - Dietary fiber  13.2 g  
Fat 9.72 g
Protein 23.15 g
Thiamine (Vit. B1)  1.882 mg   145
Riboflavin (Vit. B2)  0.499 mg   33
Niacin (Vit. B3)  6.813 mg   45
Pantothenic acid (B5)  0.05 mg  1
Vitamin B6  1.3 mg 100
Folate (Vit. B9)  281 µg  70
Calcium  39 mg 4
Iron  6.26 mg 50
Magnesium  239 mg 65 
Phosphorus  842 mg 120
Potassium  892 mg   19
Zinc  12.29 mg 123
Manganese 13.301 mg
Wheat germ, crudeNutritional value per 100 g
Energy 360 kcal   1510 kJ Percentages are
relative to USrecommendations for
adults. Source USDA Nutrient database
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Carbohydrates     79 g
- Sugars  0.12 g - Sugars  0.12 g
- Dietary fiber  1.3 g   - Dietary fiber  1.3 g  
Fat 0.66 g
Protein 7.13 g
Water 11.62 g
Thiamine (Vit. B1)  0.070 mg   5
Riboflavin (Vit. B2)  0.049 mg   3
Niacin (Vit. B3)  1.6 mg   11
Pantothenic acid (B5)  1.014 mg  20
Vitamin B6  0.164 mg 13
Folate (Vit. B9)  8 µg  2
Calcium  28 mg 3
Iron  0.80 mg 6
Magnesium  25 mg 7 
Manganese  1.088 mg 54 
Phosphorus  115 mg 16
Potassium  115 mg   2
Zinc  1.09 mg 11
Rice, white, long-grain, regular,
raw Nutritional value per 100 g Energy 370 kcal
  1530 kJ Percentages are relative to
USrecommendations for adults. Source USDA
Nutrient database
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Growth Stages
http//weedsoft.unl.edu/documents/GrowthStagesModu
le/wheat/wheat.htm http//sanangelo.tamu.edu/agro
nomy/wheat/whtmang.htm (Refer)
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• Jointing Stage
• Is a part of the veg. stage, characterized by
• Stem elongation
• Most tillers have formed by this stage and the
  secondary root system is developing
• Plants begin to grow erect from its previous
  prostate growth
• the number of spikelets per spike (head size) is
  determined.
• The first node just above the soil surface is
  visible on the main stem followed by second node
  as well as nodes on tillers
• rapid spike expansion take place.
• Flag leaf becomes visible just after the second
  node on main stem

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At the boot stage, the head is developed and can
be seen in the swollen section of the sheath of
the flag leaf.
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• Heading and Flowering
• Heading
• - At this stage awns are visible and heads are
  emerging through the slit of the flag leaf
  sheath, with approximately 50 of heads emerged
  from the flag leaf in a given area.
• Flowering
• At this stage heading is complete.
• Flowering begins about 3 to 5 days after heading,
  first on the main stem followed by on the
  tillers.

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• Ripening
• - This stage denotes physiological maturity.
  This is followed by kernel ripening and grain
  drying.

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• Climatic requirement
• Wide adaptability
• Prefer areas with cool, moist weather during
  growing period followed by dry, warm weather.
• Optimum temperature range for ideal germination
  of seed is 20 25 degree Celsius
• Can germinate in the temp range of 3.5 35 deg.C
• Areas with warm and damp climate are not suited
  for wheat growing.

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• Cloudy weather, with high humidity and low temp.
  is conducive for rust attack.
• Requires about 14 -15 deg. C at the time of grain
  filling is crucial for yield
• Temp above 25 deg C tend to affect yield
• Soils SOIL
• Soil type is the most important local physical
  feature affecting cropping potential and
  management practices.
• Wheat grown in variety of soils
• Preferred soil types are clay loam heavy soils
  with good drainage.

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• Eg. Gangetic alluvium of UP and Bihar, Indus
  alluvium of Punjab and Haryana etc.
• Field Preparation
• - Requires a well pulverized soils for good
  germination
• Field after the harvest of previous crop should
  be properly ploughed and harrowed 2-3 times
  followed by planking
• Pre-sowing irrigation (wetland) 7-10 days before
  sowing seed is needed for proper germination.

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• Light leveling is required before sowing seed.
• In rain-fed areas (dry land) FP should be done
  with care as conservation of moisture is
  dependent on it.
• Fields are deep ploughed and done planking
• Usu. done in evening times and furrow should be
  kept opened whole night to absorb moisture from
  dew.
• Planking should be done in the morning

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• Seed and sowing
• Certified seed of right variety suitable for a
  particular locality should be selected
• Seeds should be treated with Vitavax _at_ 2.5g/kg
  seed to control loose smut.
• Time of Sowing
• One of the important aspects in obtaining good
  yields of wheat
• Varies widely over the wheat growing areas
• Depends on soil temperature, irrigation
  facilities and duration of wheat varieties

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• Rainfed wheat is sown in 2nd week of Oct
  beginning of November.
• Irrigated varieties sown in the beginning of
  November
• Sonalika (short duration variety) is sown
  sometimes in the month of Dec.
• However, when wheat is sown in the month of Dec.,
  there is a drastic reduction in yield.

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• Method of sowing Four methods
• Broadcasting uniformly broadcast and then
  covered by harrowing (commonly practiced in
  Bhutan)
• Behind local plough commonly practiced in India
  seeds are dropped by hand into furrows that
  have been opened with last plough
• Drilling sown by seed drill by dropping seeds
  at uniform depth - Results in uniform germination
• - Seed drill may be bullock or tractor driven

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• 4. Dibbling used in case supply of seeds is
  limited done with the help of a small implement
  called Dibbler
• Not commonly used time consuming
• Management practices
• Manures and Fertilizers
• MF both play an impt roles in crop prodn impt
  in wheat cultivation
• About 5 t/ha of well decayed FYM at final

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• - land preparation and is mixed well
• - for better yield supplement with inorganic
  fertilizers _at_ 503020 NPK kg/ha
• - half of N and all of P K should be applied
  basally while the rest of the N should be
  top-dressed at first irrigation
• Seed rate 100-130 kg/ha
• Spacing 20 - 22.5 cm between rows is recommended
  when sowing is delayed a closer spacing of
  15-18cm adopted.
• Irrigation
• - Adequate soil moisture is required for normal
  dev. of wheat plant at all stages of growth.

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• A total 5 irrigation crown root initiation
  (CRI) (20-25) tillering stage (40-45) jointing
  (booting) stage (70-75) flowering (90-95) dough
  stage (110-115).
• vary depending on soil type, winter rainfall,
  amount of water applied per irrigation 3
  sufficient.
• The crown root initiation (CRI) stage and heading
  stage are the critical stages when plant suffers
  most due to moisture stress.
• 1st Irrigation 20-25 or 25-30 days (hilly areas
  like Bhutan) after sowing i.e. at the CRI stage.
• Delay avoided upset root growth, tillering,
  heading and yield.

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• 2nd Irrigation at booting or jointing stage
  (70-75 days after sowing)
• 3rd Irrigation At milk stage (90-100 days)

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• Harvesting
• - when leaves and stems turn yellow and become
  fairly dry before it is dead ripe.
• Done manually using serrated sickle
• In villages using 2 short sticks called Khrip or
  Kreow

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• Harvesting
• Usually done by cutting the head with sickle or
  cutting the entire stem
• The cut stem with ears are bundled up and hanged
  to dry
• When dry, ears are cut from the peduncle and
  beaten with stick or crushed with feet.

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• Threshing after harvest dry the crop for 3-4
  day, then stack and thresh.
• Manually using a flail (Kubji or yarjung) or
  power thresher.
• made of two sticks joined by a knob, one for a
  handle and the other which swirls in a clockwise
  direction, threshing the crops
• Storage
• Moisture content for
• safe storage is 10-12

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• Weeds both dicot and monocot
• - Major dicot weeds are Chenopodium album,
  Fumaria parviflora, Cirsium arvense, Anagallis
  arvensis etc

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• Monocot weeds include Phalaris minor, Avena
  fatua (wild oat), Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon
  dactylon

Phalaris minor (Dwarf Canary Grass)
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Cyperus rotundus or Nutgrass
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• Weed control
• eradicated with the help of hoe and uprooting
  by hands
• Chemical weedicides are used
• - Common effective herbicide (liquid solid)
  used to kill broad-leaved weeds is 2,4 D
  (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid).
• - 700 ml/625gm is mixed with 400-600 lts of water
  for spraying in an area of one hectare.
• Sprayed 32-35 days after sowing

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• - Spraying after 40 days not effective or not
  beneficial.
• Avoid drift of spray in the adjoining crop
  fields, a slight drift may spoil pulse crop (pea,
  lentil, mustard)
• Monocot weeds like Phalaris minor can be
  controlled by spraying Tribunil/Dosanex/
• Isoproturon _at_ 2kg per ha in 400-600 lts of water
  at 32-35 days.

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• Wheat Diseases
• Major diseases of wheat are rusts, loose smut,
  alternaria leaf blight powdery mildew.
• Rusts (brown yellow) caused by fungus sp.
  Puccinia. Black rust also appears in fields that
  are sown late.

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• Brown rust
• Puccinia recondita tritici
• Generally develop on leaves but in severe attacks
  - on sheath and stem (scattered)
• uredial pustules are bright orange in color,
  which are in small clusters or irregularly
  scattered.
• Spreads during warm and humid conditions
• In severe attacks, plant mature early, produce
  light and shrivelled grains poor dev. of roots.
• Most widespread in India

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• Yellow rust
• Fungus Puccinia straciformis
• Generally develop on leaves but in severe attacks
  - on sheath, stem and glumes
• uredial pustules are lemon-yellow in color, which
  are in rows
• Appearance of lemon-yellow pustules in rows is
  characteristic feature
• In severe attacks, these pustules become large
  patches plant gets completely covered
• Common in areas where temp gets considerably low
  during the wheat growing season
• Problem of the hills, foot-hills.

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• Black rust
• Puccinia graminis tritici
• Uredial pustules occur on stem, sheath, leaves
  and earheads
• stem severely affected.
• Formation of dark, black, elongated telial
  pustules
• Spreads during warm and humid conditions

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• Rust control measures
• Avoid growing single variety in entire field
  adopt 2-3 varieties
• Avoid late sowing as late sown crop is
  susceptible
• Avoid excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers as
  high dose of nitrogen favours rust formation
• Spraying Zineb or Dithane M-45 with Sandovit
• Spraying is recommended if good crop is
  threatened
• 1st spray when pustules are seen _at_ 375 lts
  solution per ha
• 2nd spray after 10 days _at_ 750 lts solution per ha
• 3rd 4th spray at the interval of 14 days _at_ 1000
  and 1250 lts soln per ha, respectively

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• Other diseases
• Loose smut smut fungus, Ustilago nuda tritici
• Distinguishable after heading from healthy plants
• Production of black powder in place of grains in
  the ears -every ear is converted into black
  powder
• Is a mass of olive-green microscopic spores
  blown, germinate on the female organ, stigma
  leading to infection of developing seed.

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Control - resistant variety, Vitavax - uproot
the infected plant (cover the black spores) and
burn it.
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• Alternaria leaf blight
• - Fungus, Alternaria triticina
• - Lowermost leaves show the sign of infection
  first and spread to upper leaves
• Small, oval, discoloured lesions, irregularly
  scattered spots on leaves
• become dark brown and irregular - Death of
  entire leaf
• Control
• Vitavax and spraying Zineb or Dithane M-45

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• Powdery Mildew
• - Fungus, Erysiphe graminis tritici
• Characterized by formation of white, powdery
  growth of the fungus (spores) on the upper
  surfaces of leaves
• Leaf sheaths, stems and earheads may also be
  affected when severe
• Control
• resistant variety
• burn crop residues after harvest

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