Argument

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Argument

• The Basics

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What does an argument do?

• In essence, every argument is a CLAIM. There are
  four basic kinds of claims
• Claims of fact (____ is true)
• Claims about cause and effect
• Claims of value (_____ is great/awful)
• Claims about solutions and policies

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Claims and Appeals

• Of course, claims need supportthis is where the
  arguing comes into play. Someone who is making a
  claim must assemble evidence or otherwise
  persuade the audience to his/her point of view by
  making appeals.

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Types of Appeal

• The three types of appeals identified by
  Aristotle are still in use today. They are
• Logosthe appeal to logic.
• Pathosthe appeal to emotion
• Ethosthe appeal to ethics
• Most arguments will use a combination of at least
  two of these types of appeals.

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Why does it matter?

• In your next essay, you will be arguing AGAINST
  one of the sample essays youre given. In order
  to do that effectively, youll need to not only
  IDENTIFY the claims and appeals of the author,
  but also structure your own argument in
  opposition.

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Things to look for

• Any time the author states unequivocally that
• something is true
• A causes or does not cause B
• something is good or bad
• or suggests/denounces a solution or policy
• the author is making a CLAIM. You must identify
  these in the text and decide which claims are the
  basis for the argument.

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Once youve identified claims

• You need to look for appeals.
• Lots of facts and information are usually appeals
  to LOGIC (Logos).
• Sad, heart-wrenching stories are usually appeals
  to EMOTION (Pathos).
• Details intended to convince you that
  something/someone is good or bad based on moral
  standards are appeals to ETHICS (Ethos).

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Check for bias!

• A really good argument will be balanced.
• Be suspicious of an argument that is entirely
  emotionalits usually a good sign that the
  author knows the argument is weak.
• Be suspicious of an argument that is entirely
  logicalit may be missing an essential component
  of humanity.
• Be suspicious of an argument that is entirely
  based on personal ethicslike the emotional
  argument, it tends to focus on the individual to
  cover up weak logic.

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Logical Fallacies

• These are the most common errors made in logic.
  Look for them in arguments youre presented with.
  Try to AVOID them in arguments you make.

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The Hasty Generalization

• This is a conclusion based on biased or
  insufficient evidence. Example
• Your friend says, Ms. Williams is so mean! She
  gave me a 65 on my essay!
• The conclusion is not necessarily wrongMs.
  Williams may very well be incredibly evilbut to
  base that solely on a single essay grade would be
  illogical. Your friend may have ignored the
  assignment sheet, or Ms. Williams might actually
  be a cookie-baking adopter of near-blind,
  geriatric dogs with only three teeth. There just
  isnt enough evidence to support the claim of Ms.
  Williams cruelty.

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Post hoc ergo propter hoc

• Latin for after this, therefore because of
  this. This fallacy assumes that because event B
  happened after event A, that A caused B.
  Examples
• Acne ruined my life! The day I got that huge
  zit, she broke up with me.
• I wrote that essay in the morning before school
  and got an A on it. I must work better under
  pressure!

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Stereotyping

• Assuming that someones origin or status is
  determines character, nature, or worthlogically
  unsound. Examples
• That big football player must have more muscle
  than brains.
• The people who live in that trailer are probably
  cooking meth.
• Great. One more pregnant teenager wholl end up
  on welfare for the rest of her life.

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Begging the Question

• This happens when you make the argument a
  foregone conclusion. Examples
• Corrupting, violent rap music should be banned.
  Because this assumes in the opening statement
  that rap is corrupting, its begging the
  question. If you wanted to argue that lyrics
  glorifying violence and drug use and denigrating
  women are a corrupting influence on young
  listeners and therefore should be banned, then
  that would be logicalbut you cant assume the
  corruption without proof.

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Circular Argument

• This is a statement that restates rather than
  proves. Example
• Mrs. Gillespie is a fantastic teacher because of
  her awesome teaching methods!
• This may certainly be accurate, but the terms
  fantastic teacher and awesome teaching
  methods are almost interchangeable, so the
  statement doesnt really prove anything.

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Either/Or

• This fallacy oversimplifies by reducing the
  alternatives to two choices, creating a false
  dilemma. Examples
• Anyone who criticizes the government is
  un-American!
• You cant possibly drive that truck if you care
  about the environment!

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Faulty Comparison or Analogy

• Basing an argument on a comparison only works if
  the two things, ideas, situations, or events are
  identical.
• Genetically modifying crops is like creating a
  purebred animalyou look for the best traits and
  combine them.

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Ad hominem

• Latin for to the man. Basically, attacking
  someones character and name-calling in an effort
  to avoid the real issue.
• Ms. Teacherlady should not be allowed to work
  with kindergarteners! I saw her at the store, and
  she was wearing short shorts and buying alcohol!

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Ad populum

• Latin for to the people. An emotional appeal to
  positive or negative concepts important to the
  people, usually in an effort to avoid the real
  issue. In the USA, ad populum arguments usually
  invoke the flag, fallen soldiers, and the need to
  protect our rights and freedoms. These become
  particularly popular during wars and elections.

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Slippery slope

• These arguments contend that if A happens, the
  floodgates will open and the whole alphabet will
  follow.
• If we allow sex education in schools, the teen
  pregnancy rate will skyrocket!

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Red herring

• The name of this fallacy refers to the act of
  dragging a smelly fish across your trail to lead
  tracking dogs away from your path. Someone who
  uses a red herring argument leads the listener
  away from the real issue.
• I wonder if the people who say strip club
  objectify women understand how much money those
  dancers make?

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Straw man

• This replaces the real and complicated argument
  with an artificial and much easier argument.
• That essay should be an A. I spent six hours
  on it and its ten pages long!
• This attempts to shift the argument from the
  QUALITY of the writing to the EFFORT
  expendedwhich, sadly, is not the final measure.

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So

• Read the essays.
• Identify the claims.
• Determine the appeals.
• Check for bias.
• Check for fallacies.
• You can NOT attempt this essay without carefully
  reading and thoroughly analyzing your source
  essay. The preparation to argue is essential.