Migration to the Americas

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Migration to the Americas

• 10,000 years ago ice covered many parts of the
  world (land and water), causing lower sea levels.
• Land was exposed along coasts.

Ice Age

• Today the Bering Strait lies between Alaska and
  Siberia, but during the Ice Age a land bridge
  connected them.
• Historians call the ancient land area Beringia.

Beringia

• Hunters from Siberia crossed the land bridge.
• They arrived in North America between 12,000 and
  40,000 years ago.
• These hunters crossed in small groups at
  different times.

HuntersCrossed
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Migration to the AmericasHunters and Gatherers

• They were nomads who moved from place to place.
• Followed hunter-gatherer way of life
• Women and girls collected nuts, berries, wild
  plants, and birds eggs.
• Men and boys went on extended hunts, followed the
  animal herds.
• When the animals moved, so did the
  hunter-gatherers.
• Hunter-gatherers never stayed in one place for
  long.

• Hunting was good along edges of ice sheets.
• Giant sloths
• Saber-toothed cats
• Woolly mammoths
• Wolves
• Camels
• Animals were not accustomed to humans, making
  them easy prey.
• Hunters drove animals off cliffs or killed them
  with stone-tipped spears.

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Migration to the Americas

• End of the Ice Age
• The climate grew warmer glaciers melted.
• Large lakes and layers of rich soil were left.
• Thick forests grew in eastern North America.

Effects

• Climate change and skillful hunters killed off
  Ice Age animals.
• Bands of hunters moved south in search of new
  food supplies.
• By at least 11,000 years ago, people were living
  in North and South America.

FoodSupply
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Migration to the Americas
The Agricultural Revolution

• Farming
• Native Americans began farming.
• Farming led them to live in villages instead of
  moving from place to place.
• This dramatic change was called the Agricultural
  Revolution.
• This change began at least 7,000 years ago in
  parts of the Americas.

• Basic Crops
• By about 2,000 years ago, ancient American
  farming was based on
• Corn (maize)
• Beans
• Squash
• Meat
• Men hunted seasonally for meat, but began raising
  animals.

• More Changes
• The food supply was dependable.
• Populations grew.
• People began crafting (pottery weaving).
• They developed ways to govern villages and to
  distribute wealth.

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Cultures of Central America and South America
Central and South America have archaeological
sites from many different cultures.

• Three major cultures flourished in Mesoamerica.
• Mesoamerica is the area from present-day central
  Mexico into Central America.

CentralAmerica
SouthAmerica

• A fourth important culture arose in South America.

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The Earliest Cultures of North America

• Southwest Peoples
• Grew corn, beans, squash and women made pottery
• The Hohokam dug irrigation ditches for farming.
  Had simple temple mounds and ball courts
• The Anasazi lived in multistory adobe buildings
  (pueblos) built on flat mesas and on steep
  cliffs.
• The Anasazi had a road system.

• Mound Builders
• Lived in eastern North America in small farming
  villages run by clan leaders
• Complex villages developed.
• Called mound builders because they buried their
  leaders in large earth mounds
• Adena people had a trade network to bring them
  goods from far away.
• Hopewell people were skilled artists.

• Mississippian Culture
• Last major mound-builders
• Most advanced farming society north of Mexico
• Grew maize and beans, invented the hoe
• Towns had large temple-mounds.
• Their greatest cities were Cahokia, near St.
  Louis, and Moundville, in Alabama.

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North American Cultures in the 1400s

• The Main Idea
• A variety of complex societies existed in
  different regions of North America before
  European explorers arrived in the early 1500s.
• Reading Focus
• How did regional differences among Native
  Americans shape their diverse cultures?
• What Native American customs were shared among
  several groups?
• How did trading networks link Native American
  societies?

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Regional Differences among Native Americans

• Diverse environments of North America influenced
  the Native American cultures across the continent.

• The Southwest
• Pueblo peoples inherited many Anasazi customs.
• The Zuni, Hopi, and Acoma lived in pueblos.
• They grew corn, beans, squash, and cotton in
  river and creek bottoms.
• They made distinctive pottery and baskets.
• Later the Apache and the Navajo arrived.
• Originally nomadic hunters, gradually took up
  farming like the other Pueblo peoples
• Became skilled weavers

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Regional Differences among Native Americans

• The Northwest Coast
• Climate was cool and rainy. Tall trees, wild
  plants, game, and fish were abundant.
• Hunters went to sea to hunt whales.
• The Kwakiutl and the Haida were skilled
  woodworkers.
• The rich resources made them wealthy.

• California
• This region was located south of the Northwest
  Coast.
• Home to the Pomo, Hupa, and Yuro, among others
• These peoples lived in small communities of 50 to
  300. There were over 100 languages spoken in the
  region.
• The people fished and hunted because food was
  available year-round. They did not have to farm.

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Regional Differences among Native Americans

• The Far North
• Region also known as Arctic and Subarctic
• The peoples are the most recent migrants from
  Asia.
• These ancestors of modern Inuit came by boat
  about 1,500 years ago.
• Aleuts came earlier and settle on Aleutian
  Islands.

• Land and Vegetation
• Much of the land is tundra.
• Animals were abundant despite the lack of
  vegetation.
• The Inuit and Aleuts mainly hunted.
• On the coast, people hunted seals, seabirds, and
  whales
• Inland, they hunted caribou, beaver, and bear.
• Archaeological evidence of their sites is rare.
  Perhaps rising sea levels after the Ice Age
  covered the coastal settlements.

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Regional Differences among Native Americans

• The Great Basin and the Plateau
• These are two dryland regions located east of the
  mountain ranges of the Pacific coast.

• The Great Basin
• Native Americans such as the Ute and Shoshone
  were challenged by the weather and environment.
• There was little rain, few trees, no large
  rivers, and few wild game.
• They were hunter-gatherers dug roots, gathered
  acorns and piñon nuts, and hunted rabbits.
• Their populations were small.

• The Plateau
• Located north of Great Basin
• More rainfall than Great Basin
• More forests than Great Basin
• Crossed by rivers brimming with salmon and other
  fish
• Groups such as the Nez Percé lived in villages
  along the rivers.

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Regional Differences among Native Americans

• The Great Plains
• Home to the Sioux, Pawnee, and Cheyenne
• Flat land with prairie grasses and tree-lined
  rivers
• Herds such as elk and bison grazed there.
• Had to hunt buffalofarming was difficult with
  tough grass roots
• The Caddo and Wichita lived in fertile farm
  valleys.

• The Eastern Woodlands
• Thick forests
• Because travel was difficult, groups developed
  their own traditions, tools, and (often)
  languages.
• The Iroquois included several groups who shared a
  culture and language. They lived in longhouses.
• The Chippewa, Fox, and Sauk also lived in the
  region. They spoke Algonquian languages.
• Plenty of meat, furs, and fish

• The Southeast
• Most lived in settled farming villages.
• They had a warm climate with plenty of rain this
  allowed them to grow several crops a year.
• Many groups lived here, including the Choctaw.
• They lived in thatched-roof log cabins plastered
  with mud.

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Native American Customs

• Family relations
• Most villages and nations organized into clans by
  kinship
• Kinship determined inheritance, status, and
  marriage eligibility
• Housing arrangements and social engagements
  depended on the position of women.
• Iroquois society was matrilineal.
• In Hopi culture, a man went to live with his
  wifes family when he married, bringing seeds
  from his mothers crops.

• Social and political structures
• Social organization varied greatly from group to
  group.
• Most clans or nations were headed by a chief.
  Villages were run by a council of elders.

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Native American Customs

• Land use
• They did not believe that land should be bought
  and sold.
• Some societies viewed land as a gift from the
  Great Spirit to be shared by the village or group
  for farming or hunting.
• Still, some groups warred over territory.

• Division of labor
• Ancient hunter-gatherers men and boys hunted and
  women and girls gathered plants, nuts, and
  berries
• Agricultural Revolution saw women take over
  planting and cultivating crops
• Southwest division of labor women and men
  farmed women cared for children, cooked, wove
  cloth, and made pottery and baskets men were
  woodcarvers and probably metalworkers

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Native American Customs

• Religious beliefs
• Native Americans shared spiritual and religious
  ideas.
• Belief that there was a spiritual connection to
  the natural world
• In many belief systems, a tree stood at the
  center of the earth.
• Animals were thought to be powerful spirits.
• Native Americans told many stories.
• Some explained the creation of the world or the
  origin of their peoples.
• Other stories were about spirits and crops,
  rivers or other aspects of nature.

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Trading Networks Link Native American Societies

• Trading Networks
• Hopewell trade network covered two-thirds of the
  United States.
• It could take years to bring items back to Ohio
  (long distances and travel difficulty).
• The Hopewell people obtained bears teeth,
  obsidian, cooper, mica, and shells through trade.
• Travel made by canoe and on foot

• Exchange of Ideas
• The trade networks carried ideas from place to
  place.
• Mississippians may have borrowed temple mounds
  and pyramids from Mesoamericans.
• Pueblo peoples religious ideas and ritual
  costumes came from Mexico.

Native Americans usually traded by a barter
system.

• Reasons for trade
• Specialization began.
• Farmers could grow extra crops.
• Others could access needed minerals.
• People living near water traded shells or pearls.
• Artisans traded their creations.

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African Society and the Slave Trade

• African rulers were wealthy and had lavish
  lifestyles.
• Strong families were central to African society.
• People were loyal to those with the same lineage.
• Men and women could be enslaved if they were
  captured in war, found guilty of a crime, or were
  in debt.
• Slaves could work their way to freedom in most
  African societies.

The Portuguese in West Africa

• Nature of slavery changed when Europeans arrived
  in Africa.
• Portuguese established large-scale farms, or
  plantations, first in Africa, then in Caribbean
  islands and in the Americas later the Spanish,
  British, French, and Dutch did the same.
• Plantations were labor-intensive. First Native
  Americans were used for labor, but diseases and
  working conditions took a heavy toll.

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African Society and the Slave Trade
The Atlantic Slave Trade Begins

• Atlantic slave trade began in the sixteenth
  century as a response for the demand for cheap
  labor. Europeans viewed the black Africans as
  inferior.
• Planters demanded more laborers for their
  plantations.

• African merchants helped supply slaves to traders
  in exchange for the traders business. African
  rulers supplied slaves in exchange for European
  firearms.
• Others who supplied slaves wanted to help weaken
  rival African leaders.

• Europeans captured people during conflicts with
  North African Muslims.
• European traders conducted slave raids and
  kidnappings.
• The Portuguese began the slave trade, but by the
  1600s the English, French, and Dutch were heavily
  involved, too.

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African Society and the Slave Trade
The Impact on African Society

• Atlantic slave trade continued for 400 years.
• Historians estimate that 20 million Africans were
  sent to the Americas.
• Many others were sent to other parts of the
  world. Many died en route.

• The strongest young people were taken, the future
  leaders.
• Slave raids discouraged people from planning for
  the future.
• The slave trade interrupted normal political and
  economic development because of the loss of
  population.

• The slave trade divided Africans from one
  another.
• Young African men were hired by slave traders as
  kidnappers.
• Rulers warred against their own people and
  neighbors in order to gain captives for the trade.

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The Middle Ages

• The Middle Ages (AD 500 to 1500) began when the
  Roman Empire collapsed and created widespread
  lawlessness.
• Feudalism and the manorial system
• Invaders occupied Spain and attacked other
  nations in central Europe. Vikings raided the
  northern coasts of Europe.
• Feudal system developed when local nobles gave
  parcels of land from their large estates to
  vassals, or nobles of lower rank. The vassals
  pledged their loyalty and military service to the
  lords.

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The Middle Ages

• The Crusades
• Roman Catholic Pope Urban called on Christian
  kings and knights to recapture the Holy Land from
  Muslim Turks. Thousands answered his call to the
  holy wars, known as the Crusades.
• The Muslims kept their lands, but the wars
  allowed Europeans to experience new lands and
  people and boosted trade between Europe and the
  Middle East.
• Wealthy European merchants and artisans made up a
  growing middle class.

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The Middle Ages

• New nation-states
• Many nobles lost their fortunes in the Crusades
  the new middle-class townspeople did not owe
  loyalty to a feudal lord.
• Kings gave towns charters and collected taxes.
  England, France, and Spain began creating
  nation-states with strong central governments and
  homogeneous populations.
• King John of England was forced to sign the Magna
  Carta, a document that established several
  principles of government
• No taxation without representation
• The right to trial by a jury of ones peers
• These rights were gradually extended to ordinary
  people.

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The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation

• The Renaissance (rebirth)
• In the 1300s, a new era of learning began in the
  wealthy city-states of Italy.
• Classics of Greece and Rome were studied,
  inspiring an intense creativity in the arts.

• In the medieval period, many people accepted
  misery in their lives and hoped for rewards in
  heaven.
• During the Renaissance people showed an interest
  in a meaningful life on earth.
• Scientists began to question teachings of
  Catholic Church.

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The Age of Exploration

• Marco Polo
• Polo went to China and stayed for 17 years and
  worked for Kublai Khan.
• On the return trip, he went through Southeast
  Asia and India.
• Marco took note of the people, places, and
  customs.
• His book about his travels was very popular it
  influenced later explorers.

• Prince Henry the Navigator
• Set up a school and naval observatory to
  encourage exploration
• He sponsored many expeditions.
• Hoped to find a sea route to India to allow
  Portugal and other countries to trade directly
  with the East instead of going through Italian
  merchants

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The Age of Exploration

• Better sailing technology
• Prince Henrys school developed the caravel, a
  sturdy and fast ship.
• Improved navigational instruments astrolabe and
  magnetic compass

• Looking for a sea route to Asia
• Overland trip to Asia was long, difficult, and
  dangerous
• Portuguese explorers led the way Dias, da Gama,
  Cabral
• Bartolomeu Dias was first to round the southern
  tip of Africa.
• Vasco da Gama found the sea route to India. The
  new trade route helped Portugal become a world
  power.
• The sea route discovery led to the decline of
  trans-Sahara trade and the African trading
  empires.
• Pedro Álvars Cabral spotted the South American
  coast.

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Columbuss Voyages to the Caribbean

• Christopher Columbus
• Believed that he could reach India by sailing
  west (did not know about American continents)
• Convinced Queen Isabella to back his voyage
  (after several years)
• Studied sailing and navigation techniques and
  read books about travel and geography

• The first voyage
• Set sail on August 3, 1492
• Crew of 90 men, two caravels (the Niña and the
  Pinta) and his flagship, the Santa Maria
• Reached land after 3 weeks (San Salvador in the
  Caribbean)
• Called the local people los Indios. They were
  Tainos.
• Always thought he had explored part of Asia

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Impact on Native Americans

• Colonies in Hispaniola
• Christmas Town The men Columbus had left to
  establish a town in Hispaniola behaved so wildly
  in his absence that they angered the Tainos. The
  Tainos killed all of them.
• Isabela The site had no fresh water and
  malaria-carrying mosquitoes.
• While Columbus explored other islands, his
  brothers ran Isabela. Some Spanish officers
  rebelled against them.
• Columbus and his brothers captured Indians to
  sell as slaves. Colonization turned into
  conquest.
• He eventually lost his post as governor of
  Hispaniola in 1500.

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Impact on Native Americans

• Native American Labor
• Spaniards wanted to find gold and needed the
  labor to mine it.
• In 1494 Columbus sent 26 Indians back to Spain,
  wanting them to be trained as interpreters.
• He suggested starting a trade in Indian slaves.
  Also wanted to convert them to Christianity

• Trade in Indian Slaves
• Queen Isabella didnt want to enslave Indians.
• Many Indians were then sent to Portuguese
  plantations instead.
• Later the Portuguese, French, and Dutch ran
  Caribbean plantations and kept enslaved Indians
  as local labor.
• Father Bartolomé de Las Casas dedicated his life
  to protecting the Indians from mistreatment.

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The Columbian Exchange

• Interaction between Europeans and Native
  Americansand eventually Africansled to
  exchanges
• plants
• animals
• languages
• technology
• deadly germs, brought epidemics to the Americas

• Native American crops
• Corn, beans, squash, tomatoes, chocolate, peanuts

• European contributions
• Certain foods
• Domestic animals, including horses
• New technology, including guns
• Smallpox and measles

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