Animal Structure and Function

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Animal Structure and Function
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Functional Anatomy

• Animal adaptations evolved through time by
  natural selection.
• Can also adapt over short periods of time.
• Chemical energy needed for searching for food,
  generating body heat, regulating internal
  temperature, etc..

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http//www.no-pest.com/CruisinForaBruisin'.JPG
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• Bioenergetics - how organisms obtain, process,
  and use their energy resources.
• All animals have correlation between form
  (anatomy) and function (physiology).

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http//shs.westport.k12.ct.us/mjvl/anatomy/juggler
s.gif
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• Tissues make up organs, organs ? organ systems ?
  organisms.
• Tissues - groups of cells with common structure
  and function.
• 4 types of tissues epithelial, connective,
  muscle, nervous.

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http//www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/
stomTS.gif
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• 1Epithelial covers body, lines organs and
  cavities in body.
• Cells joined tightly together.
• Prevents fluid loss, invasion of microorganisms.
• Attached to underlying tissue by basement
  membrane.

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http//www.uoguelph.ca/zoology/devobio/miller/0136
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• ASimple epithelium single-layered.
• BStratified multi-layered.
• Shapes cuboidal, columnar, sqamous (flattened)
• Glandular secretes fluid can line respiratory
  system (produces mucous)

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• 2Connective tissue binds, supports other
  tissue.
• Cells scattered throughout matrix.
• Matrix made of fibers.
• 3 types of fibers 1collagenous (collagen
  tough), 2elastic (elastin, flexible), 3reticular
  (thin and branched connect to adjoining tissues)

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Reticular fibers
http//www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/reticct
.jpg
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• Major types - loose connective tissue, adipose
  tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage,
  bone, and blood.
• ALoose connective - packing materials, holding
  organs in place.
• 2 cell types 1Fibroblasts (secrete proteins),
  2Macrophages (engulf bacteria)

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http//www.sci.sdsu.edu/histology/hi_res/jpg/ct01o
h.jpg
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• BAdipose - insulates body, stores fuel as fat
  molecules.
• Contains large fat droplet that swells when fat
  is stored, shrinks when body uses fat as fuel.

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http//www.deltagen.com/target/histologyatlas/atla
s_files/musculoskeletal/adipose_tissue_white_40x.j
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• CFibrous connective - forms tendons (muscles to
  bones) and ligaments (bones to bones at joints)
• DCartilage - flexible supports in certain
  locations, such as the nose, ears, and vertebral
  disks.
• Chondrocytes secrete collagen.

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http//www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/hcart.j
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• EBone - mineralized connective tissue.
• Osteoblasts deposit a matrix of collagen.
• Bones consists of repeating units called osteons
  has nerves and blood vessels.

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http//www.texarkanacollege.edu/mstorey/1407/bone
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• FBlood - matrix liquid (plasma) has water, salts,
  variety of dissolved proteins.
• Suspended in plasma erythrocytes (red blood cells
  carry oxygen), leukocytes (white blood cells
  fight invaders) cell fragments (platelets
  clotting)

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http//www.kumc.edu/instruction/medicine/anatomy/h
istoweb/blood/large/Blood000.JPG
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• 3Nervous - senses stimuli, transmits signals from
  one part of animal to another functional unit
  neuron
• Consists of cell body, 2 extensions (dendrites
  axons)
• Dendrites transmit nerve impulses from tips
  toward rest of neuron.
• Axons impulses toward another neuron or effector
  (muscle cell)

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• 4Muscle composed of muscle fibers capable of
  contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses.
• Fibers consist of contractile proteins actin and
  myosin.
• 3 types skeletal, cardiac, smooth.

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• ASkeletal responsible for voluntary movement
  striated.
• BSmooth no striations found in walls of
  digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, other
  internal organs involuntary.
• CCardiac striated and branched forms walls of
  heart muscle. Cells joined by intercalated
  discs involuntary.

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http//www.lima.ohio-state.edu/academics/biology/i
mages/anatomy/Smooth20Muscle20400X.jpg
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Functional Anatomy

• Tissues organized into organs.
• Mammals thoracic cavity lungs, heart
  separated from abdomen by diaphragm.
• Tissues can be arranged in layers.
• Organ systems carry out major body functions.

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Body Plans

• Animals size and shape - body plans.
• Physical requirements constrain natural
  selection.
• Laws of hydrodynamics constrain shapes possible
  for aquatic organisms that swim very fast.

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• Animals shape, size, determine how animal
  exchanges materials with surroundings.
• Protist living in water plasma membrane large
  to exchange materials through diffusion.
• Multicellular organisms many smaller cells able
  to exchange materials through each one.

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• Flat body maximizes exposure to surroundings
  prevents internal complexity.
• Most animals complex cells small compared to
  volume.
• Allows animal to not be tied to land.
• Internal organs can regulate body.

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Regulating Internal Environment

• Internal environment of vertebrates
  interstitial fluid.
• Exchanges nutrients and wastes.
• Animals maintain homeostasis (internal balance)
  even when external environment changes.

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http//titlev.fiu.edu/homeostasis/images/homeostas
is_home.jpg
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• Major internal changes are programmed to occur,
  such as during pregnancy.
• Homeostatic control system has 3 parts receptor,
  control center, effector.
• 1Receptor detects change in environment.
• 2Control center processes change.
• 3Effector directs response.

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• Two types 1Negative feedback control change
  causes reaction in opposite direction.
• Fever causes body to sweat to bring temperature
  down.
• 2Positive change causes reaction in same
  direction.
• Labor release in oxytocin increases uterine
  contractions.

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• Regulated change important to survival.
• Can by cyclical (hormones), or reactive (fever)
• Internal regulation expensive in energy.

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http//web.lemoyne.edu/hevern/psy340/graphics/neg
ative.feedback.jpg
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Bioenergetics

• Chemical energy needed for growth, repair,
  regulation, reproduction.
• Food digested through hydrolysis, nutrients
  absorbed by cells.
• ATP use creates heat that is lost to environment.
• Energy left over used for bioenergetics.

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http//www.topicazos.com/fotos/digestion.jpg
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• Bioenergetics - synthesis of storage material,
  production of reproductive structures, including
  gametes.
• Flow of energy through animal sets limits on
  growth, behavior, reproduction, energy needs.

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• Amount of energy used in given time metabolic
  rate.
• Measured in calories.
• Metabolic rate can be determined by measuring
  amount of heat produced.
• 2 metabolic strategies used by animals.

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• 1Endothermic birds, mammals - maintain body
  temperature at certain level with heat generated
  by metabolism.
• High-energy strategy allows for intense
  activity.
• 2Ectothermic reptiles, amphibians - do not
  produce enough metabolic heat to effect body
  temperature.
• Need less energy.

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http//www.kidzone.ws/animals/polar_bear_2.jpg
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• Amount of energy needed to maintain homeostasis
  inversely proportionate (per gram) to size.
• Each gram of a mouse consumes more energy than
  elephant.
• Smaller animal higher metabolic rate to deliver
  oxygen, energy.

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http//jan.ucc.nau.edu/sll/images/Elephant-mouse.
jpg
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• Metabolic rate of nongrowing endotherm at rest,
  with empty stomach, experiencing no stress -basal
  metabolic rate (BMR)
• Metabolic rate of resting, fasting, nonstressed
  ectotherm - standard metabolic rate (SMR).

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http//biology.unm.edu/jhbrown/Images/ScalingGraph
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• Behavior above BMR or SMR consumes energy.
• Maximal BMR determines amount of energy expended.
• Ectotherms cannot do long, intense activity.
• BMR of human much higher than SMR of alligator.

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• Factors influence BMR - age, sex, size, body and
  environmental temperatures, quality and quantity
  of food, activity level, oxygen availability,
  hormonal balance, time of day.
• How energy used varies among species.
• Endotherms need more energy smaller animals need
  more energy.

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• Human female spends large fraction of energy
  budget for BMR, relatively little for activity
  and temperature regulation.
• Male penguin spends larger fraction of energy
  expenditures for activity - must swim to catch
  food.

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