Chapter 9

1
Chapter 9 Functionalism Darwin, galton,
cattell, james hall

• Dr. Nancy Alvarado

2
Midterm 2 Results
Score Grade N
45-55 A 11
40-44 B 7
35-39 C 10
29-34 D 12
0-28 F 3
Highest score 50 (2 people)
3
Functionalists

• Functionalists were the first major non-German
  school of psychology.
• They were interested in studying the functions of
  the mind and the adaptive value of consciousness.
• These concerns were a product of the intellectual
  climate of the 19th century, dominated by
  Darwins theory of evolution.
• Their work was later extended by the American
  functionalists at the Univ. of Chicago and
  Columbia.

4
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

• Darwin was born to a wealthy family with
  interests in medicine and natural science.
• The pivotal experience of his life was his 5-year
  voyage on the Royal Navy survey ship, the H.M.S.
  Beagle, where he collected specimens.
• He first left med school got a poor
  (third-class) degree in religion.
• He was initially seeking confirmation of the
  Biblical account of creation, but his experiences
  changed his mind.

5
The Voyage of the Beagle
At each stop, Darwin travelled extensively inland.
6
Questions

• Darwins findings raised many questions
• Why had God created so many different species?
• Why had God allowed giant armadillos (found as
  fossils) to become extinct but not the smaller
  armadillos?
• Why had God allowed some species to become
  totally extinct?
• How would there have been room on the ark for the
  giant fossils?
• How could the earth have been created in 4004 BC
  when the age of the fossils was much older?

7
The Galapagos Islands
The Galapagos Islands are part of the country of
Ecuador.
8
Galapagos Observations

• Tortoises from islands just 50-60 miles apart had
  clearly different shells.
• On one island, finches had strong thick beaks to
  crack nuts and seeds, while on another island
  they had smaller beaks and fed on insects.
• On a third island they had beaks better suited
  for eating fruit, berries flowers.
• Darwin wondered how such differences had
  developed perhaps species are not fixed but are
  able to adapt and change over generations.

9
Theory of Evolution

• Darwins eventual theory was influenced by
  writings of several theorists before him
• Darwin read Quetelets summary of Malthuss view
  of population growth Malthus predicted an
  increasingly severe struggle for existence due to
  lack of food.
• It at once struck me that, under these
  circumstances, favorable variations would tend to
  be preserved and unfavorable ones destroyed
  Darwin wrote.
• He called this idea Natural selection or
  Survival of the Fittest. (1859) He delayed
  publication for 20 yrs.

10
Publication of His Theory

• First Darwin published his journal The Voyage of
  the Beagle which was very popular.
• In 1858, he became aware of Wallaces theory of
  natural selection, and agreed to present both his
  and Wallaces theory jointly to the Linnean
  Society.
• There was little reaction.
• In 1859, he published his Origin of the
  Species, which sold out immediately.
• His theory was hotly debated (see famous Oxford
  Wilberforce/Huxley debate on pg 308 of text).

11
Similarity of Man to Animals

• Do we share behavioral, emotional and cognitive
  characteristics with other species?
• In The Descent of Man, Darwin argued that
  there is no fundamental difference between man
  and the higher mammals in their mental
  faculties. (1871)
• Morgans canon In no case may we interpret an
  action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher
  psychical faculty if it can be interpreted as the
  outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower
  in the psychological scale.

12
Mechanism

• Darwin suggested no genetic mechanism for
  evolutionary change.
• Lamarck proposed that acquired characteristics
  can be inherited by offspring, speeding up
  change.
• Gregor Mendel demonstrated inheritance of
  physical characteristics in plants and laid the
  foundation for modern genetics.
• This was the mechanism for evolution.

13
Darwins Psychology

• The Expression of the Emotions in Man
  Animals.
• Darwin studied facial expressions, anticipating
  later research by Paul Ekman.
• Darwin kept detailed records on the growth of his
  son, Erasmus, and published them in A
  Biographical Sketch of an Infant in Mind, 1877.
• His methods were repeated by Jane Goodall,
  Piaget, and B.F. Skinner.
• Dar wins theory raised questions about the
  adaptive value of consciousness and mind
  survival

14
Francis Galton (1822-1911)

• Galton was one of the last amateur scientists,
  with eclectic interests
• Meteorologist, experimented with stereoscopic
  photos, studied fingerprints, invented an early
  teletype.
• Anthropologist and explorer (sought source of the
  Nile).
• Galton was impressed by how well people he met
  had adapted to their harsh desert environment
  (Kalahari).
• He published Art of Travel.

15
Individual Differences

• Galton was interested in measuring things
• Whenever you can, count. Fidgets per minute in
  kids, middle-aged and elderly. Beauty map of
  Britain.
• In 1884 he established an anthropometric
  laboratory to collect data on individual
  differences.
• Psychometrics measurement of mental powers.
• Visual auditory reaction times, highest audible
  tone.
• He published a method for quantifying correlation
  later derived mathematically by Karl Pearson (r).
• He used questionnaires, associations tests of
  imagery.

16
Galton as Hereditarian

• In Hereditary Genius he discussed the relative
  contributions of environment genetics to
  ability.
• I propose to show in this book that a mans
  natural abilities are derived by inheritance
  under exactly the same limitations as are the
  form and physical features of the whole organic
  world.
• He proposed that abilities were on the same
  continuum as other physical traits Quetelets
  law of deviation from the average (like the
  normal curve).
• Quetelet Galton established the normal man.

17
Galton Statistics

• Galton developed the following terms
• Median, bell-shaped curve, correlation,
  dispersion, interquartile range, regression,
  percentile.
• Galtons student Pearson introduced
• Histogram, kurtosis, random sampling, random
  walk, skewness, standard deviation, variance.
• Formula for the correlation coefficient,
  Pearsons r.
• The concept of dealing with individual
  differences in a probabilistic way the
  characteristics of a population are regular, even
  if people are not.

18
Nature and Nurture

• Galton argued that because talent seemed to
  concentrate in eminent families (Hereditary
  Genius), individuals must be inheriting such
  abilities.
• He introduced the terms nature vs nurture into
  the debate and the idea of twin studies, see pg
  322.
• Candolle criticized this idea, cataloging the
  favorable circumstances in eminent families.
• In response, Galton wrote
• English Men of Science Their Nature and
  Nurture.

19
Galton and Eugenics

• Galton was fascinated by the idea of human
  improvement via genetic control, which he called
  Eugenics.
• He proposed voluntary means of improvement.
• Eugenics societies and idea were widespread after
  WWI G.B. Shaw Isadora Duncan (his brain).
• Abuses were justified in the name of eugenics,
  including forced sterilization and restrictive
  immigration in the US.
• With the rise of the Nazis, these were
  implemented as Hitlers final solution to the
  Jewish question.

20
Inquiries into Human Faculties

• In 1872, Galton published Statistical Inquiries
  into the Efficacy of Prayer.
• He advocated for the use of control groups in
  statistical comparisons.
• Are prayers beneficial? Royalty have shorter
  lifespans.
• There is no evidence that missionary voyages are
  safer.
• In his Inquiry into Human Faculties and
  Development, the chapters on prayer were omitted
  from future editions due to controversy.

21
James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)

• Cattell was one of the first students to get a
  Ph.D. with Wundt, then he was appointed to
  Cambridge.
• He was strongly influenced by Galton, and like
  Galton measured everything he could about
  himself.
• In 1888, Cattell founded a lab at the University
  of Pennsylvania using Galtonian measures with
  students but moved to Columbia College in 1891.
• He discussed 10 mental tests in Mental Tests and
  Measurements, published in Mind The Freshman
  Test.

22
Cattells Anthropometric Tests

• The 10 tests included
• Dynamometer pressure, Rate of Movement,
  Sensation-Areas, Pressure causing Pain, Least
  Noticeable Difference in Weight, Reaction-Time
  for Sound, Time for Naming Colours, Bi-Section of
  a 50-cm. Line, Judgment of 10 Seconds Time,
  Number of Letters Remembered on One hearing.
• Wissler found no correlation between the tests.
• These tests were abandoned in favor of better
  mental measurements (see Chapter 11).

23
Cattells Other Work

• Experimental research on judgments of relative
  rank, such as shades of gray rank ordered on
  brightness.
• Leading psychologists ranked those in their
  profession.
• Backgrounds of famous scientists a person had
  the best chance if their father were clergy or
  professor.
• His famous students were Thorndike, Woodworth,
  Strong (vocational test).
• Published Science (AAAS). Founding member of APA.
  His company developed WAIS, WISC, TAT.

24
William James (1842-1910)

• In early 20th century, Americas foremost
  psychologist. First on everyones list (Cattell).
• As a young man, James floated directionless,
  rejecting chemistry, natural science, dabbling in
  medicine, until finally discovering psychology.
• He visited Fechner, Helmholtz,Wundt
  DuBois-Reymond.
• He finally graduated in medicine. He was offered
  a job at Harvard teaching physiology anatomy.
• He contemplated suicide at age 28.

25
Principles of Psychology

• In 1874, James taught his first class on
  physiology and psychology (making it up as he
  went along).
• In 1882, he took a leave of absence to visit
  European psychologists again.
• In 1890, he published Principles of Psychology
  which became an instant classic.
• Theodore Roosevelt was a famous student of James.
• After the success of his book, he withdrew from
  experimental research -- not worth the effort.

26
Link to Principles of Psychology

• Available as an ebook that can be read on the
  web
• http//ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/j/james/william/prin
  ciples/complete.html

27
Eclectic Philosopher

• He became increasingly interested in mind-body
  relationships and psychical phenomena.
• Psychosomatic illness led to interest in mind
  cures.
• He studied automatic writing, telepathy,
  clairvoyance, fortune-tellers, religious
  experience (energy flow).
• He wrote Pragmatism expressing a practical
  philosophy pragmatic criteria for judging
  truth.
• All beliefs are judged by their consequences in
  action.
• If a belief in God works, it is a pragmatic truth
  for that person.

28
James as a Psychologist

• He opposed the Wundt-Titchener approach.
• He proposed an analytical approach that studies
  the functions of consciousness its
  characteristics.
• Consciousness is adaptive lets us adjust to
  environment
• Also, personal, ever-changing (a stream),
  selective.
• James-Lange theory of emotion the perception of
  changes in the nervous system constitute emotion.
• Cannon criticized this view
• Habits are formed by nurture early in life.

29
Views on Memory

• James said the strength of a memory depends on
  the quality of the structure of the brain, an
  innate characteristic not influenced by
  experience.
• Systematically linking facts together might
  improve memory.
• This contradicted the dominant view, formal
  discipline, that said a general intellectual
  faculty could be developed via exercise.
• Memorizing poems (Victor Hugos Satyr and
  Miltons Paradise Lost), he demonstrated
  interference.

30
G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

• A contemporary of James, Hall grew up in a farm
  family of Puritan heritage.
• At age 16, he worked as a village school teacher.
• Later, he attended Williams college and Union
  Theological Seminary in NYC.
• In 1869, he went to Europe, then returned
  finished seminary and taught at Antioch College.
• He ultimately did his Ph.D at Harvard, then went
  back to Europe to study in Wundts lab.

31
Halls Early Career

• Hall lectured on the German psychologists at
  Harvard and Johns Hopkins which led to a job
  there
• The president of Johns Hopkins created
  fellowships for grad students which attracted
  excellent students.
• Hall founded a great psychology dept and The
  American Journal of Psychology.
• Hall was the founding president of Clark
  University.
• Lots of problems, including being raided by Univ
  of Chicago (2/3 of faculty 70 grad students
  left).
• Hall helped found the APA in 1892 was president

32
Hall as Developmentalist

• In 1883, Hall developed questionniares for Boston
  kindergarten children to assess the content of
  their minds how children think.
• He was the first psychologist to describe
  adolescence as a separate stage.
• He stressed the importance of genetics
  evolution.
• He developed a recapitulation theory
  (embryological development recapitulates
  evolutionary development).
• As he grew older he became interested in aging.

33
Hall vs Margaret Mead

• Hall felt that adolescent storm stress was
  largely biological, mediated by family culture.
• Mead disagreed, using a 1928 ethnography of Samoa
  to depict adolescents as free of turmoil.
• Freeman (1983) criticized Meads book, claiming
  that she had diminished the aggression,
  violence, and rivalry of Samoan life and
  exaggerated thedegree of sexual freedom.
• Orans (1996) supported Freeman, not Mead.

34
Mead in Samoa
Although flawed, her book is still the most
widely read book in anthropology.
35
The Clark Conference

• Hall organized the first opportunity for
  Americans to meet Freud.
• Freud gave 5 lectures, Jung gave 3 lectures
  both received honorary degrees.
• The lectures were published, bringing them to a
  wider audience.