Chapter 9: Background to the Middle East

1
Chapter 9Background to the Middle East
2
What is the Middle East?

• Middle East is not a geographical region
• Concept based on a Western orientation to the
  world
• Alfred Thayer Mahan
• Dominated by two major concerns
• Religion of Islam
• History of Arab people

3
What is the Middle East?

• Culturally, Middle East dominated by the religion
  of Islam
• Most Muslims live outside the region
• Many differing cultures inside Islam
• Myriad of interpretations of the religion
• Region witnessed the birth of three monotheistic
  religions
• Judaism
• Christianity
• Islam

4
What is the Middle East?

• Centuries of conflict between Muslims and
  Christians
• Islamic conquests
• Arabic empires
• Western Crusades
• Mongol invasions
• Turkish domination
• Christian domination

5
What is the Middle East?

• Three issues assisting in the illustration of the
  importance of the region
• Birth and spread of Islam
• Confrontations between Christianity and Islam
  from the first Arab empire through creation of
  modern Israel
• Expansion of conflict beyond the traditional
  geographical realm of the Middle East

6
A Brief Introduction to Islam

• Mohammed was born about 750 CE in Mecca.
• Mohammeds vision of Gabriel told him God had
  chosen him to be a prophet to the Arabs.
• Muslims believe that Jews, Christians, and
  Zoroastrians worship the same Deity
• Muslims believe that the Bible is a book of
  Allah, and that Abraham and Jesus were
  messengers.
• Christians and Jews are called Dhimma protected
  or guilty.
• Mohammeds role as the Prophet is crucial in
  Islam.
• Given the direct revelation of God through Gabriel

7
Introduction to Islam

• Mohammeds emphasis of social egalitarianism was
  resented by wealthy merchants of Mecca.
• Muslims believe Mohammed created perfect Islamic
  community at Medina
• Combining a just government with religion
• Mohammed stressed importance of community over
  tribal relations and Governance of Gods law in
  all aspects of life.
• Mohammed conquered Mecca.
• New religion spread along trade routes.
• Mohammed died in 632 CE.

8
The Shiite-Sunni Split

• Utterances of Gabriel written down and codified
  in the Quran.
• Mohammeds statements were recorded.
• His actions became the basis for interpreting the
  Quran.
• Muslims were expected to
• Believe in the existence of one God and Mohammed
  as Gods Prophet.
• Pray as a community.
• Give to the poor.
• Fast during holy times.
• Make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a
  lifetime.

9
Shiite-Sunni Split

• Question of leadership
• One group of people believed that Mohammeds male
  heir should lead the community (according to
  Arabic tradition) they believed that Muhammads
  cousin and son-in-law Ali had authority provided
  by God.
• Another group of people believed that the
  community should select its own leaders caliphs
  (political and religious leaders).

10
Shiite-Sunni Split

• Importance of community took precedence over
  tribal rule of inheritance Sunni branch of
  Islam
• Abu Bakr, become a first caliph in 632CE, after
  his death (assassination) Umar became a caliph.
• Assassination of Umar led to new caliph Uthman.
• Assassination of Uthman

11
Shiite-Sunni Split

• Sunnis, or mainstream Muslims, followed the
  caliph.
• Sunnis compose approximately 85-90 of all
  Muslims today.
• Followers of Ali became known as Shiites.
• Few theological differences between Sunnis and
  Shiites.
• Main difference focused on line of succession to
  Mohammed.

12
Golden Age of Arabs

• Following Mohammeds death, Islam and Arabic
  culture spread through Middle East.
• Two dynasties of leaders ruled the area
• Umayyads
• Abbasids
• Islam means submission to the will of God
• to make someone safe, to make peace, to submit
  oneself, to surrender
• Muslim is one who submits
• Islam means the entire surrender of the will to
  God

13
Golden Age of Arabs

• West began its first violent encounter with the
  Middle East through the Crusades (1095-1250).
• European attempts to conquer the Middle East
• Crusades instigated centuries of hatred and
  distrust between Muslims and Christians.
• The Crusades ended over 700 years ago Islamic
  Jihad continues to this day.
• European struggles with Ottoman Empire reinforced
  years of military tensions.

14
Agrarian Response to Political Crisis

• Armstrong Islam went through a series of crises
  before and after 1492.
• Agrarian empires falter religious zealots rise
  to call faithful back to true meaning of the
  religion
• Theologically driven political reform movement is
  brought about by
• Invasion of Mongol and Crusader armies.
• Stagnation of Arab thought and technological
  development after 1200.
• Collapse of Caliphate in 1922.

15
Militant Philosophy

• Developing religions invite various
  interpretations
• Reformers of Islam called believers to an
  idealized past when crises erupted
• Gave rise to militancy
• Militants misused the theology of the reformers
• Taqi al Din ibn Taymiyyah (Islamic scholar)
• Developed new ideas about militancy and the faith
  after Arab setback of Mongols and Crusaders
• Called for destruction of heretics and invaders
• Called jihahad the sixth pillar of Islam

16
Militant Philosophy

• Taqi al Din ibn Taymiyyah
• Muslims had fallen away from the truth
• Must internally purify themselves
• Believed Crusaders and Mongols defeated Islamic
  armies because Muslims had fallen away from true
  practice of Islam
• Attacked anything threatening to come between
  humanity and God emphasizing tawhid
• Any belief that went beyond Mohammeds revelation
  was to be subject to a purifying jihad
• Expanded meaning of jihad to advocating attacks
  on non-believers and impure Muslims

17
Militant Philosophy

• Abdul Wahhab
• Preached a puritanical strain of Islam in Saudi
  Arabia
• Sought to rid the religion of practices added
  after the first few decades following Mohammeds
  death.
• His followers argue that they are trying to rid
  religion of superstition.
• Muhammed bin Abd al-Wahhabs descendents are
  known today as Al al-Shaykh. The family of Al
  al-Shaykh has included several religious
  scholars, including the current Saudi minister of
  justice and the current grand mufti of Saudi.

18
Militant Philosophy

• Sayyid Qutb (Egyptian teacher and journalist)
• 1965 published Milestones
• Outlines theology and ideology of Jihadist
  revolution
• Called on Muslims to overthrow corrupt
  governments of the West.
• Muslims were in cosmic battle with the forces of
  darkness.
• World descended to darkness shortly after the
  death of Mohammed
• Called for the destruction of all enemies
• Al Qaeda Manual cites Qutb as an inspirational
  source.

19
Modern Middle East

• Three critical events helped shape modern Middle
  East in the late 1800s
• Ottoman Empire
• Ruled much of the Middle East
• Zionism
• European Jews wanted their own homeland
• Tensions rose when Jewish settlers moved into the
  area
• World War I
• Victorious nations felt they had won the area
  from the Turks
• Divided Middle East to share spoils of victory

20
Mahans Middle East

• Three factors became prominent in Middle Eastern
  violence
• The Palestinian question
• Intra-Arab rivalries/struggles
• The future of revolutionary Islam
• Those factors are symbiotic interdependent
• Express dissatisfaction over the existence of
  Israel
• Are anti-imperialistic
• United in kinship bonds

21
The Early Zionist Movement in Palestine

• The Zionist movement broke out at the same time
  the Ottoman Empire was created.
• Palestinians sold land to the Zionists the
  ultimate purpose was to create a Jewish state.
• The Zionists originally stated they had no desire
  to displace the Palestinians they wanted to
  coexist with them.

22
World War I and contradictory Promises

• British encouraged the Arabs to revolt against
  the Turks
• Arabs were promised the Caliphate would be moved
  to Mecca and an Arab named as Caliph.
• For a general Arab revolt against the Turks, the
  British agreed to support the creation of an
  independent Arab state at the end of WWI.
• Balfour Declaration promised the creation of
  Israel.
• Creation of Zionist Jewish homeland in Palestine
• Directly contradicted promise to move the
  Caliphate to Mecca.

23
World War I and contradictory Promises

• British negotiated a treaty with the French to
  extend their spheres of influence in the states
  of the old Ottoman Empire.
• British also promised Russia control of one third
  (northern) of the area of Iran.
• End of WWI the Middle East was controlled by
  British, French, and Russia.
• Arabs and Jews could not develop under the
  watchful eyes of the British.
• Both Arabs and Jews felt that they were given
  false promises and demanded their right to
  homeland.
• Mandate of Palestine placed the British in the
  center of Middle Eastern affairs.

24
The Birth of Israel

• Jews and Arabs resented the British they also
  mistrusted each other.
• Violence began in the 1920s.
• Jews displaced by the Nazi holocaust flocked to
  Palestine in late 1945-1946.
• British banned Jewish immigration.
• Influx of Jewish immigrants continued.
• Arabs start to arm themselves.
• Modern terrorism resurfaced in Palestine before
  UN partition.
• 1948 United Nations recognized the modern
  nation-state of Israel.
• Arabs attacked immediately.

25
Arab Power Struggles and Arab - Israeli Wars

• Modern Middle Easter terrorism
• Result of continuing conflicts in the twentieth
  century
• Arabs, Palestinians and Jews dissatisfaction
  with peace settlements after WW 1
• The French and British created a number of states
  that did not reflect the realistic division in
  the Middle East Libya, Syria, Egypt, Lebanon,
  Jordan, Iraq.

26
Arab Power Struggles and Arab - Israeli Wars

• 1947 1967 Middle East was dominated by a series
  of short conventional wars.
• Six Day War - 1967
• PLO began a series of terrorist attacks against
  Israeli civilians.
• Arab states split into several camps
• Jordan camp anxious about finding way to coexist
  with Israel
• Egypt camp avenge the embarrasment of the Six
  Day War
• Baath Party Arab socialists calls for both Arab
  unity and the destruction of Israel
• A group of wealthy oil states hoped for stability
  in the region
• Yom Kippur War Egyptians drove Israeli forces
  back into the Sinai Syrians drove on to the
  Golan Heights.

27
Rise of Terrorism

• Menachim Begin, Prime Minister of Israel, and
  Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt, signed the Camp
  David Peace Accord in 1979.
• Soon after, Sadat was assassinated by Muslim
  fundamentals for signing peace with Israel.
• Arabs rejecting peace with Israel fell into two
  camps
• Radicals rejected any peace or recognition of
  Israel.
• Moderate groups were concerned about the fate of
  Palestinians.

28
Rise of Terrorism

• In the 1980s Middle Eastern terrorism fell into
  several broad categories
• Suicide bombings and other attacks on Israeli and
  Western positions in Lebanon
• Various militias fought other militias in Lebanon
  (Lebanese Civil War 1975-1990)
• State-sponsored terrorism from Libya, Syria, and
  Iran
• Freelance terrorism to high-profile groups
• Terrorism in support of Arab-Palestinians
• Attacks in Europe against Western targets
• Israeli assassinations of alleged terrorists
• Arab struggle against Arab Iraq-Iran, Iraq-Kuwait

29
Iran

• Iranians are not Arabs they are Persian with
  strong ethno-national ties to the ancient Persian
  Empire.
• Modern Iran formed within the context of European
  imperialism.
• During the XIXth century, Iranians developed a
  hierarchy of Shiite Islamic scholars, including
  local prayer leaders, masters of Islam,
  Ayatollahs, and Grand Ayatollahs.
• Iranian scholars form the majilis council, a
  theological advisory board to the government.
• Majilis took political leadership

30
Iran

• British influence and control
• British were instrumental in placing Iranian
  leaders on the throne.
• In 1925 Reza Shah Pahlavi become Shah of Iran
  with British support.
• 1930s Reza Shah Pahlavi befriend Hitler he saw
  Germany relations as a way to balance British
  influence.
• In 1941 the Allied Powers forced Reza Shah
  Pahlavi to abdicate in favour of his son.

31
Iran

• The U.S. took British place after WWII.
• In 1953 Reza Shah Pahlavi formulated plan to stay
  in power.
• In 1957 with the help of CIA and British
  recommendations, Reza Shah Pahlavi created SAVAK
  a secret policy to destroy his enemies.
• Clergy from Qom organized against Reza Shah
  Pahlavi Shah released his forces and attacked
  Qom, one of his prisoners is Ruhollah (Ayatollah)
  Khomeini.
• Iran disavowed the U.S. after the 1979 Iranian
  Revolution.

32
Iran

• The Revolution
• Ruhollah Khomeini Shiite Grand Ayatollah was
  leading figure in the 1979 Iranian Revolution.
• Toppled the Shahs government
• Consolidated power by destroying or silencing his
  enemies.
• Khomeini viewed President Carter as a
  manifestation of satanic power.
• Created an Iranian theocracy with the majilis in
  charge of spiritual and temporal life.
• Khomeini believed it was time to launch a holy
  war against the West and traitors to Islam.
• Khomeini influenced majilis council dominated
  Iranian politics.

33
Iran

• After Revolution
• New form of terrorism spread through the Middle
  East.
• In 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon Iranian
  revolutionaries traveled to Lebanon to help them
  resist Israel.
• The Iranians arrived to Bekka Valey and
  established the nucleus of a new type of
  revolutionary force HEBOLLAH.
• Khomeini used a mixture of repressive tactics and
  political strategies to consolidate his power in
  Iran.
• He removed Islamic scholars and political
  leaders.
• He believed that Iranian Revolution was a first
  step in puryfying the world.