How to Write a Paper

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How to Write a Paper

• A.P.A. Format

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The Purpose of a Paper

• To explore a topic of interest critically, and to
  share what you have learned in a written format.
• It combines your ideas with those of published
  authors.
• Presents an argument or gives an analysis of a
  topic.

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Getting Started Overview

• Step One Narrow your topic and generate a
  research question (what do I want to know?)
• Step Two Break it up into smaller questions
• Step Three Find information
• Step Four Organize information
• Step five Formulate your argument

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Caution!

• If you leave an essay topic too broad, it will be
  superficial.
• If your essay topic is narrow, you can deal with
  it in depth.

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Taking Notes

• This is a difficult but IMPORTANT part of
  researching the paper.
• Take notes as your read.
• Summarize information in your own words. (Focus
  on the main idea)
• Paraphrase information.
• Find quotes that support your thesis/research
  question.
• DO NOT PLAGIARIZE!!!!!
• Use credible, reliable sources

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Evaluating your sources

• Author/Organization (Are they an expert? Do they
  have an agenda? Bias?)
• Language (Strong? Vague? Positive? Negative?)
• Quality of argument (What information are they
  basing it on?)
• Your sources sources (How/where did they get
  their information?)

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Notes to Remember

• Do not use contractions in a formal essay.
• For example, use do not instead of dont.
• Do not write in the first person.
• For example, use One may think instead of
  stating I think
• Write out numbers 1 to 10, and any other short
  number.
• Seven, eight, nine, ten, 11, 12, 13, 14.

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Do Not Plagiarize!!!!!

• It is a serious offence!
• Plagiarism will be dealt with by administration!
• You must give credit for other peoples ideas,
  opinions or theories!!!!

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Organizing your information

• Remember
• It is easier to assemble all the data BEFORE
  writing the paper, than during the process.
• Outline
• It may be helpful to produce an outline of your
  essay, to serve as a roadmap for your research
  paper.
• Your outline will help organize your paper into
  several basic parts
• Introduction
• Main body paragraphs
• Conclusion
• References

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Title Page

• Center the title approximately in the middle of
  the page.
• Do Not underline or place quotation marks around
  the title unless it happens to be a quote or the
  title of a literary work.
• Capitalize the first letter in the title and all
  other words except prepositions.
• Double-space the following under the title your
  Name, Course (Block), Teachers Name and date.
• Page s are to be placed in the upper right hand
  corner of every page, including the title page
  and reference page.
• Use an abbreviated title, which is 5 spaces to
  the left of the page number.
• Do not use periods or brackets around the .

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Example of Title Page
Abb. Title
1 An Original Title Your Name African
Canadian Studies 11 B-Block Ms. Reid Due Date
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Introduction

• Introduction Provides background information to
  the reader about the issue you are dealing with
  and allows you to state a research question or
  thesis.
• The first paragraph is crucial for catching the
  attention of the audience and for conveying to
  them the importance of the questions that you
  have addressed in the paper.
• If you do not catch the attention of the audience
  in the first few sentences the chances are high
  that they will not want to continue reading.

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Introduction

• Things not to do
• Do not say In this paper I will or The
  purpose of this essay
• Do not use a dictionary or encyclopedia
  definition to start your essay.

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Introductionsome ideas

• The introduction should be designed to attract
  the readers attention and give an idea of the
  essays focus.
• Begin with an attention grabber.
• Option 1 Startling Information
• This information must be true and verifiable,
  and it doesnt need to be totally new to your
  readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact that
  explicitly illustrates the point you wish to
  make. If you use a piece of startling
  information, follow it with a sentence or two of
  elaboration.

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Introductionsome ideas

• Option 2Anecdote
• An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point.
  Be sure your anecdote is short, to the point, and
  relevant to your topic. This can be a very
  effective opener for your essay, but use it
  carefully.

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Introductionsome ideas

• Option 3 Summary InformationA few sentences
  explaining your topic in general terms can lead
  the reader gently to your thesis. Each sentence
  should become gradually more specific, until you
  reach your thesis.
• If the attention grabber was only a sentence or
  two, add one or two more sentences that will lead
  the reader from your opening to your thesis
  statement.
• Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.
  

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Introduction

• Introductory Paragraph (at least 5 sentences)
  This paragraph must introduce your topic and
  present your thesis.
• Opening Sentence
• Grab the readers attention with something
  interesting and specific to your topic. Avoid
  sweeping generalizations (Throughout time People
  always wonder about) as they are too vague and
  meaningless.
• Subsequent Sentences
• Provide a general overview of the topic. What
  does the reader need to know before he/she is
  able to understand your thesis? What is the
  context?
• Define any key concepts and terms central to the
  focus of your essay.
• Thesis Statement
• In one sentence clearly state your position and
  briefly outline your supporting arguments.
• Present your arguments in the same order in which
  you will address them in your essay.
• Example Human cloning is unethical because it
  erodes human individuality, creates emotional and
  psychological trauma for the cloned child, and
  eliminates necessary biological gene selection.

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Thesis Statement

• The thesis statement tells the reader what the
  essay will be about, and what point you, the
  author, will be making. It maps out the paper as
  it suggests an order or direction for the papers
  development. A good thesis statement often
  answers the questions How? and Why?

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Thesis Statement

• Answers the question, What is this paper trying
  to prove to its audience?
• Compresses the critical crux of your paper into
  one sentence.
• Conveys your main argument in a nutshell.
• Uses specific language and specific ideas.
• Generates a multi-faceted argument.

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Examples of Thesis Statements

• A thesis should be arguable. Reasonable people
  should be able to disagree with your thesis. Its
  not interesting if people cannot dispute it. It
  needs to be controversial enough so people want
  to continue reading.
• A thesis is supported by strong arguments. Its
  important to discuss the best arguments in favor
  of your thesis in addition to addressing the
  strongest ones that go against it.
• A thesis takes some sort of stand. You must draw
  your own conclusions and support them by
  research.

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Examples of Thesis Statements

• A thesis is limited. This means that you zero in
  on the parts of your topic that you wish to focus
  on. Otherwise you could go on and on forever (in
  theory).
• Example
• There are many advantages to having professional
  sports teams in Chicago. (POOR)
• Having professional sports teams in Chicago has
• political, social and economic advantages.
  (BETTER)

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Writing the Body ParagraphsRemember Say
itSupport itExplain it!

• The topic you have chosen must now be explained,
  described, or argued.
• Each main idea that you wrote down in your
  diagram or outline will become one of the body
  paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas,
  you will have three or four body paragraphs.
• Elaboration can be further description or
  explanation or discussion.

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(No Transcript)
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First Supporting Argument (not limited to one
paragraph)

• Topic Sentence
• Your first supporting argument to prove your
  thesis is clearly stated.
• Proof/Evidence
• Support your argument using evidence relevant
  and detailed facts, examples, Historian/Sociologis
  ts views/theories and/or quotations.
• Explanation
• Explain how/why the evidence proves your
  argument. Why significant?
• Connection
• Close the paragraph by wrapping up the argument
  presented in the topic sentence and connecting it
  to your thesis.
• Transition to next paragraph

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First Supporting Argument (not limited to one
paragraph)

• Key Point 1 (Topic Sentence)
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  ____________________________________
• Supporting detail 1 _____________________________
  __________________________Transition
• Supporting detail 2 _____________________________
  __________________________Transition
• Supporting detail 3 _____________________________
  __________________________Transition
• Clincher detail ________________________________
  ____________________________________
• Concluding Sentence with Transition
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  ______________________

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Second Supporting Argument (not limited to one
paragraph)

• Topic Sentence
• Your second supporting argument to prove your
  thesis is clearly stated.
• Proof/Evidence
• Support your argument using evidence relevant
  and detailed facts, examples, Historian/Sociologis
  ts views/theories and/or quotations.
• Explanation
• Explain how/why the evidence proves your
  argument. Why significant?
• Connection
• Close the paragraph by wrapping up the topic
  sentence argument and connecting it to your
  thesis.
• Transition to next paragraph

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2nd Supporting Argument (not limited to one
paragraph)

• Key Point 2 (Topic Sentence)
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  ____________________________________
• Supporting detail 1 _____________________________
  __________________________Transition
• Supporting detail 2 _____________________________
  __________________________Transition
• Supporting detail 3 _____________________________
  __________________________Transition
• Clincher detail ________________________________
  ____________________________________
• Concluding Sentence with Transition
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  ______________________

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Third Supporting Argument (not limited to one
paragraph)

• Topic Sentence
• Your third supporting argument to prove your
  thesis is clearly stated. To further
  strengthen your argument thesis use this
  paragraph(s) to acknowledge and refute
  counter-argument(s) if applicable.
• Proof/Evidence
• Support your argument using evidence relevant
  and detailed facts, examples, Historian/Sociologis
  ts views/theories and/or quotations.
• Explanation
• Explain how/why the evidence proves your
  argument. Why significant?
• Connection
• Close the paragraph by wrapping up the topic
  sentence argument and connecting it to your
  thesis.

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Third Supporting Argument (not limited to one
paragraph)

• Key Point 3 (Topic Sentence)
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  ____________________________________
• Supporting detail 1 _____________________________
  __________________________Transition
• Supporting detail 2 _____________________________
  __________________________Transition
• Supporting detail 3 _____________________________
  __________________________Transition
• Clincher detail ________________________________
  ____________________________________
• Concluding Sentence ____________________________
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________
  ____________________________________________
• OR Acknowledge and refute counter-argument(s) if
  applicable

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Conclusion

• The conclusion brings closure to the reader,
  summing up your points and providing a final
  perspective on your topic.
• Concluding Paragraph (at least 5 sentences)
• New information must not be introduced.
• First Sentence
• Restate your thesis use different wording.
• Subsequent Sentences
• Clearly summarize your arguments in support of
  the thesis. Remember, it is your last chance to
  convince the reader you have proven your thesis!
  Avoid a thoughtless regurgitation.
• Leave the reader with something to think about.

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Citations

• Use APA in-text citations, which will direct the
  reader to a list of references at the end of the
  paper. They identify the authors name, the year
  of publication. For direct quotes, also include
  the page number.
• Use citations when you
• Use quotes (exact words from someone else)
• Use ideas from someone else
• Summarize and paraphrase other sources
• Statistics
• Visual info. Such as tables, graphs, diagrams
  illustrations
• You do not need to use citations when
• It is your original thoughts and ideas
• Common Knowledge (Ottawa is the capital of
  Canada)
• Tip If in doubt, cite!

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Examples of Citations

• Quotations
• (Author, date, page )
• No date (Author, page )
• No Author (Abb. Title, date, page )
• Web site Same, but instead of page use
  paragraph
• ( symbol for paragraph) (Reid, 2005, 5) or
  (Reid, 2005, para. 5)
• If the authors name is mentioned in the text
• Ms. Reid (2005) states "Africa is in an economic
  crisis due to European colonization and the
  aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (p.5).
• If the authors name is not mentioned in the
  text
• In a recent publication, one observer noted
  "Africa is in an economic crisis due to European
  colonization and the aftermath of the Triangular
  Trade " (Reid, 2005, p.5).

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Examples of Citations

• Summary or Paraphrase
• Same as above, but you do not need to use page
  s, unless using longer works.
• Two Authors
• (Clarkson McCall, 2005, p.).
• Unknown Author
• Use the title of the work. Example (Crisis in
  Africa, 2005, p.).

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Examples of Citations

• Electronic Sources
• A. Same as above, but use paragraph s instead
  of page s. Use the symbol or by the
  abbreviation "para."
• Example (Reid, 2005, 5) or (Reid, 2005, para.
  5)
• B. If neither a page nor a paragraph number is
  given and the document contains headings, cite
  the appropriate heading and indicate which
  paragraph under that heading you are referring
  to.
• Example (Shared Path section, para. 6).
• C. If you use a source that was cited in another
  source (a secondary source), name the original
  source in your signal phrase. List the secondary
  source in your reference list and include it in
  your parenthetical citation, preceded by the
  words "as cited in." In the following example,
  Booth is the secondary source.
• Example
• Historian Ms. Reid states "Africa is in an
  economic crisis due to European colonization and
  the aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (as cited
  in Rhymes, 2005, p.5).

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Examples of Citations

• If you use a source that was cited in another
  source (a secondary source), name the original
  source in your signal phrase. List the secondary
  source in your reference list and include it in
  your parenthetical citation, preceded by the
  words "as cited in." In the following example,
  Booth is the secondary source.
• Example
• Historian Ms. Reid states "Africa is in an
  economic crisis due to European colonization and
  the aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (as cited
  in Rhymes, 2005, p.5).

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Transitional Words and Phrases

• Good transitions can connect ideas and paragraphs
• Helps papers read more smoothly, and at the same
  time allows the reader to flow more smoothly from
  one point to the next.
• Always use a transition phrase at the beginning
  of a new body paragraph
• Always use a transition word in between thoughts
  within a paragraph
• Never use a transition word to begin an essay
• Never use a transition word to begin a paragraph
  (but you can sometimes use a transition phrase at
  the start of a new body paragraph)

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Transitional Devices

• To Add
• and, again, and then, besides, equally
  important, finally, further, furthermore, nor,
  too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in
  addition, first (second, etc.)
• To Compare
• whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however,
  nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison,
  where, compared to, up against, balanced against,
  vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile,
  after all, in contrast, although this may be true
• To Prove
• because, for, since, for the same reason,
  obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover,
  besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any
  case, that is

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Transitional Devices

• To Show Exception
• yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of,
  despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes
• To Show Time
• immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few
  hours, finally, then, later, previously,
  formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then
• To Repeat
• in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as
  has been noted
• To Emphasize
• definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact,
  indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively,
  naturally, surprisingly, always, forever,
  perennially, eternally, never, emphatically,
  unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly,
  undeniably, without reservation

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Transitional Devices

• To Show Sequence
• first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and
  so forth. next, then, following this, at this
  time, now, at this point, after, afterward,
  subsequently, finally, consequently, previously,
  before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus,
  therefore, hence, next, and then, soon
• To Give an Example
• for example, for instance, in this case, in
  another case, on this occasion, in this
  situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to
  illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate
• To Summarize or Conclude
• in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude,
  in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said,
  hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result,
  consequently, on the whole

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Punctuation Rules

• Coordinating Conjunctions (and, but, or, yet,
  so) Put a comma before these conjunctions.
  (Don't use them at the beginning of a sentence in
  more formal writing.) example The movie has
  already started, but my friend has not arrived
  yet.
• Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts
  either . . . or)
• Put a comma before the second part if it connects
  2 clauses (complete sentences). example Eric is
  not only an outstanding teacher, but he is also a
  gourmet cook.
• You don't need a comma if it only connects words
  or phrases. example Eric is not only an
  outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook.
• Transitional Words and Phrases
• Put a comma after these if they are at the
  beginning of a sentence. example I like to
  travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old
  cathedrals.
• Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences.
  example I like to travel specifically, I enjoy
  places with old cathedrals.
• Use a comma before and after the transitional
  word/phrase in the middle of a clause. example
  I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy
  places with old cathedrals.

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Reference Page

• At the end of the report (on a separate piece of
  paper), center the title References at the top of
  the page. Do not italicize, underline or use
  quotation marks around the title.
• Number the page of your reference list the same
  as the rest of your paper. (Shorten title and 5
  spaces and then page )
• Arrange all sources you used in a single
  alphabetical list by authors last name or by
  title if no author is given.
• Double-space all entries in your reference list.
• DO not indent the first line, but always indent
  the second or third lines (5 spaces). This is
  called Hanging Indentation.
• Always leave 1 space after commas and 2 spaces
  after periods and colons.
• Do not them.

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Reference Samples

• Book
• Author. (Date). Title. Place of Publication
  Publisher.
• Editor
• Name of Editor. (Ed.). (Date). Title. Place
  of Publication Publisher.
• Electronic Encyclopedia
• Title of Article. (Date). Name of Encyclopedia.
  Publisher.
• Encyclopedia
• Author (if given). (Date). Title of Article.
  Name of Encyclopedia.
• Volume , Pages.
• Magazine/Newspaper
• Author (if given). (Date, Month). Title of
  Article. Name of
• Magazine/Newspaper, Pages.

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Reference Samples

• Internet Resources
• Author. (Date). Title of Article. Retrieved
  September 20th,
• 2005 from URL
• Example
• Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Notable People in
  Psychology of
• Religion. Retrieved August 3, 2001, from
• http//www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm
• No Date
• Nielsen, M. E. (n.d.). Notable People in
  Psychology of Religion. Retrieved
• August 3, 2001, from  http//www.psywww.com/psyre
  lig/psyrelpr.htm
• No Author, No Date
• Gender and society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3,
  2001, from

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Title 5 References DiLorenzo, Thomas.
(2002). The Economics of Slavery. Retrieved
September 17th, 2007, from http//www.lewr ckwe
ll.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo29.html Dodson,
Howard. (2003). How Slavery Helped Build a
World Economy. Retrieved on September 17th,
2007, from http//news.nationalgeographic.com/
news/ 2003/01/0131_030203_jubilee2.html Field,
Ron. (1995). African Peoples of the Americas.
Great Britain Cambridge University
Press.. Slavery. (n.d.) Retrieved on September
17th, 2007, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
slavery The Economics of Slavery. (n.d.)
Retrieved on September 17th, 2007, from
www.digitalhisotry.uh.edu/database/ article_dis
play.cfm?HHID80
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Editing

• Check spelling and grammar.
• Read your essay out loud to yourself and then to
  someone else!!!!!
• Make sure you do not have run-on sentences and
  that you have organized paragraphs!!!
• Make sure that your essay flows and is
  interesting!!!

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Congratulations!

• Once you have checked your work and perfected
  your formatting, your essay is finished.