Elements of thought

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• Point of view
• Information
• Fact
• opinion
• Rhetoric

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• Point of view
• Information
• Fact
• opinion
• Rhetoric

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Point of View as a focus of statement

• A hairdresser, for example, because of her
  perspective, might be more concerned than most
  janitors (gatekeeper) with personal appearance.
• Looking good and helping others to look good are
  more intimately connected with her view of
  herself and the world.

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Point of View as a focus of statement

• An orthodontist would naturally think much more
  about teeth and their appearance than most other
  people would.
• Having straight teeth would naturally seem more
  significant to her than it might to, say, most
  professional football players. The orthodontist's
  purpose in fostering (development) straight teeth
  arises out of her perspective or point of view.

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potential sources for our point of view

• a point in time (16th, 17th, 18th, 19th Century)
• a culture (Western, Eastern, South American,
  Japanese, Turkish, French)
• a religion (Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, Jewish)
• a gender (male, female, gay, straight)
• a profession (lawyer, teacher, . . .)
• a discipline (biological, chemical, geological,
  astronomical, historical, sociological,
  philosophical, anthropological, literary,
  artistic, musical, dance, poetic, medical,
  nursing, sport)
• a peer group
• an economic interest
• an emotional state
• an age group

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Point of View (frame of reference, perspective)

• Point of view is one of the most challenging
  elements to master.
• On the one hand, it is highly intuitive to most
  people that when we think, we think within a
  point of new.
• On the other hand, when we ask people, in the
  midst of reasoning something brought, to identify
  or explain their point of view, they are likely
  to begin expressing anything and everything they
  are thinking about.
• Clearly, most people do not lave a clear sense of
  how to identify someone's point of view,
  including their own.

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Point of View (frame of reference, perspective)

• It is sometimes difficult to distinguish point of
  view from assumptions. Indeed, the two often
  overlap.
• For example, consider physical point of view
  While you are reading these words your point of
  view is physically different from that of anyone
  around you.
• You, physically, are viewing this page at a
  certain angle everyone else is looking at other
  things at their own books, at a teacher, out a
  window.

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Point of View (frame of reference, perspective)

• Addressing the same question from a different
  point of view can produce a whole different set
  of
• purposes
• assumptions
• conclusions
• and so on.

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The point of view of the critical thinker

• They use the dialogue to find out specifically
  the point of view and concerns of those with whom
  they are talking.
• They do not see opposing points of view as a
  threat to their own beliefs. They see all beliefs
  as subject to change in the face of new evidence
  or better reasoning. They see themselves as
  lifelong learners.

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Evaluation of points of view

• A major critical-thinking skill to develop is the
  ability to evaluate points of view. Clearly it is
  not enough just to know what my point of view is.
  
• Example utilitarian PoV in ethics
• Bigots (extremist), for example, will sometimes
  openly admit that they look at things from a
  bigoted point of view. (They sometimes even seem
  proud of it!) Obviously, that is not an example
  of critical thinking.
• Once I've identified a point of view on an issue,
  my own or anyone's, I need to evaluate how
  plausible it is, how well it fits the evidence,
  how biased it is.

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Evaluation of points of view
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Figure 5.5 This chart focuses on point of view
in thinking. It is useful in understanding the
intellectual standards to be applied to point of
view and in differentiating between the use of
point of view in thinking by skilled and
unskilled reasoners.
by Paul/ElderCritical Thinking
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• Point of view
• Information
• Fact
• opinion
• Rhetoric

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Opinion
Data

• Attitude
• Education
• Culture
• Personality
• Norm of organization
• Ambiguity
• Duration
• Group effect
• Cognitive Biases

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Why we should not use mere opinion
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Cognitive Biases?????? ??????

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Primary vs. Secondary Sources

• Primary Source First hand or original
  information that comes from a reliable source.
• Examples include
• Eyewitness accounts
• Personal interviews
• Autobiographies
• Letters
• Diaries
• Scientific journals

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Primary vs. Secondary Sources

• Primary Source First hand or original
  information that comes from a reliable source.
• Secondary Source Information that has been
  gathered and interpreted by more than one source.
  

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Primary vs. Secondary Sources

• Secondary Source Information that has been
  gathered and interpreted by more than one source.
  
• Examples include
• Textbooks
• Encyclopedias
• Magazine articles
• Guideline
• Editorials

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Sources of Supporting Material

• Books
• Journals
• Government Documents
• Definitions
• Classification
• Operational definitions

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Types of Supporting Material

• Illustrations
• Descriptions Explanations
• Analogies
• Opinions
• Expert testimony

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Types of Supporting Material
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Fact

• Oxford dictionary
• 1) a thing that is known or can be proved to have
  happened, to be true or to exist No one can deny
  the fact that fire burns
• 2) a piece of information on which a belief or an
  argument is based if youre going to make
  accusations youd better get your facts right (ie
  make sure they are correct)

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Opinion

• Oxford dictionary
• 1) A belief or judgment about something or
  someone, not necessarily based on fact or
  knowledge what is youre opinion of the new
  president?
• 2) A professional estimate or piece of advice
  get a lawyer's opinion on the question

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Determining a Fact

• Facts are usually expressed by precise numbers or
  quantities, in weights and measures, and in
  concrete language.
• Example graph and table
• Facts can be verified, or checked for accuracy,
  by anyone.

Critical thinking Moore and Parker,2003
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Effect of Raloxifene on BMD in Post-menopausal
Women with Osteoporosis
Meunier P. et al, Osteoporosis Int. 1999 10330
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Annual incidence rates of hip fracture in
postmenopausal females in different populations
Age standardized rate in Female
place
Age standardized rate in Female
place
China Iran Malaysia Thiland Japane Kuwait Singap
our Hong kong Taiwan
85 165 200 250 300 300 400 500 500
Switzerland East germany West germany England
Greec USA Sweden Norway
350 350 400 400 450 500 700 750
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Determining An Opinion

• Opinions are based on subjective judgment and
  personal values
• An opinion is a belief that someone holds without
  complete proof or positive knowledge that it is
  correct.
• Opinions cannot be checked for accuracy by some
  outside source.

Critical thinking Moore and Parker,2003
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Fact vs. Opinion

• Opinion A statement that expresses beliefs,
  feelings, and judgments.
• Phrases begin with I believe, I think, probably,
  it seems to me, or in my opinion.
• Statements often contain words such as might,
  could, should and ought.
• Judgment words such as good, bad, poor, and
  satisfactory indicate an opinion.

Critical thinking Moore and Parker,2003
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Factual and Nonfactual Issues

• An issue is factual if there are established
  methods for settling it- that is, if there are
  generally accepted criteria or standards on which
  the issue can be judged or if we can at least
  describe what kinds of methods and criteria would
  apply even though it may be impractical or
  impossible to actually apply them.

Critical Thinking An Introduction by Moore and
Parker
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Factual and Nonfactual Issues

• It would be a mistake to think that the line
  between factual and nonfactual issues can be
  drawn with absolute clarity and distinctness.

Critical Thinking An Introduction by Moore and
Parker
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Argument components
The craft of scientific presentations,2003
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Argument components
The craft of scientific presentations,2003
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Argument components
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Empirical justification
Evidence with high precision and minimum bias
Conclusion opinion
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Definitions

• FACTS Things that can be proved or not proved
  by checking valid reference sources.
• OPINIONS Statements that cannot be proved. A
  writers feelings about someone or something. 
• STRONG ARGUMENT Facts or opinions that are
  backed up by reasons, facts, and examples related
  to the topic. 
• WEAK ARGUMENT A series of personal opinions
  that are not backed up by facts and examples and
  may not be related to the topic.
• PERSONAL VALUES What a person believes is
  important, unimportant, bad, right, or wrong.
  This affects a writers conclusions about a
  topic. Identifying these can help the reader to
  better analyze content of research materials.

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Why we should not use mere opinion in scientific
presentations
Fact Opinion Tautology
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Fact or Opinion?

• Algorithm
• Clinical practice guidelines
• My opinion based on personal experience
• Recommendation in conventional text books

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Indications for opinion

• Sometimes, we are not in a position to judge
  supporting evidence for ourselves
• 1.there may simply be too much of it
• 2.it may be too technical in nature
• 3.it may not be directly available to us.

Critical Thinking An Introduction by Moore and
Parker
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Indications for opinion

• Often (almost always, really) we are in a state
  of imperfect knowledge wherein we simply do not
  have a breakdown of the relevant premises
  sufficient to allow for analyzation and the
  possibility of rational certainty.
• When insufficient data must be dealt with, or an
  insufficient analysis, anything
  better-than-random is worth considering like
  emotion,.

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Indications for opinion

• Maybe someone asked you to do so
• Maybe you believe others would be improved by
  knowing your opinion
• Maybe the opinion expressed is given as support
  for another opinion

Critical Thinking An Introduction by Moore and
Parker
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Indications for opinion

• In those cases we often rely on the judgments of
  others, authorities whom we believe to be more
  likely to come to an accurate evaluation of the
  evidence than we are ourselves
• Who is authority?

Critical Thinking An Introduction by Moore and
Parker
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Why we should justify our opinion?
Epistemology Rautledge 2001
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Authority

• Relevant knowledge
• Relevant relevant expertise
• Mastery of reasoning
• Mastery of information
• No conflict of interest
• No conflict with others (authorities/fact)

Logic and critical thinking in medicine 2005
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Other Points About Fact and Opinion

• 1) Opinions may be masked as facts.
• People sometimes present their opinions as facts.
  Here are two examples
• In point of fact, neither candidate for the
  mayor's office is qualified.
• The truth of the matter is that frozen foods are
  just as good-tasting as fresh foods are.

Facts and Opinions by CJ Davenport ,2008
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Other Points About Fact and Opinion

• 2) Remember that much of what we read and hear is
  a mixture of fact and opinion
• Being able to separate fact from opinion is
  important because much information that at first
  sounds factual turns out to be opinion.

Facts and Opinions by CJ Davenport ,2008
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Other Points About Fact and Opinion

• 3) If you state a fact that is not common
  knowledge, or that cant be easily verified,
  briefly state where you got your information.
• 4) If you state an opiniona view others might
  disagree with, include answers to questions
  others might ask.
• 5) If you are not sure whether a statement is a
  fact or an opinion, treat it as an opinion.

Facts and Opinions by CJ Davenport ,2008
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Other Points About Fact and Opinion

• 6) When we dont have the time/resources to
  uncover the facts, we must resolve factual issues
  by making assumptions
• - Reasonable assumptions
• - Sincere assumptions

Facts and Opinions by CJ Davenport ,2008
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Evaluate information
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• Point of view
• Information
• Fact
• opinion
• Rhetoric

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Varieties of devices to influence our attitudes
or beliefs

• Now, when others want us to do something or want
  to influence our attitudes or beliefs, they may
  use an argument. That is, they may offer a reason
  why we should or shouldn't do or believe or not
  believe whatever it
• Demonstration-Apodictique
• Dialectique-Topiques
• Sophistique
• Rethtorique
• Poetique

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Varieties of devices to influence our attitudes
or beliefs

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What is Rhetoric?

• According to Aristotles teaching
• Rhetoric is the art of finding the best
  available means of persuading a specific audience
  in a specific situation

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Rhetoric

• Cambridge dictionary speech or writing that is
  effective and persuasive.
• Is also language, esp. speech, that contains few
  idea or lacks real meaning even though it sounds
  good
• It denotes a broad category of linguistic
  techniques

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RHETORIC

• Rhetoric
• 1) Language used primarily to persuade or
  influence beliefs or attitudes rather than to
  prove something logically.
• 2) The art of speaking or writing effectively.
• Rhetoric usually works through the emotive, or
  rhetorical force (nofooz) of words and phrases
  the emotional associations they express and
  elicit.
• For instance, saying that someone did not play a
  part in a play very well is not nearly as strong
  as saying that he butchered (ghassabi) the role.

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RHETORIC

• Rhetoric then relies on an additional or
  alternative meaning in a statement given by a
  particular word or phrase in the statement to
  give the statement a certain spin. (charkhesh)
• Rhetoric may be psychologically powerful, but by
  itself it establishes nothing. To be persuaded
  by rhetoric alone then is not to think
  critically.

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A word of caution ...

• The mere presence of slanters does not mean the
  claim is misleading good arguments can include
  slanters
• Distinguish between language with emotive force
  and language that arouses an emotional response

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Weaselers ???? ???

• There used to be an advertisement for a brand of
  sugarless gum that claimed,
• "Three out of four dentists surveyed recommend
  sugarless gum for their patients who chew gum."

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Weaselers ???? ???

• The first is the word "surveyed." Notice that the
  ad does not tell us the criteria for choosing the
  dentists who were surveyed. Were they picked at
  random, or were only dentists who might not be
  unfavorably disposed toward gum chewing surveyed?
  (Nothing indicates that the sample of dentists
  surveyed even remotely represents the general
  population of dentists).
• If 99 percent of the dentists in the country
  disagree with the ad's claim, its authors could
  still say truthfully that they spoke only about
  those dentists surveyed, not all dentists.

bring to mind formal induction!
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So

• Using weaselers, you can say almost every thing
  without any evidence!

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• Studies show" vitamin C decrease cold duration
• Note that this phrase tells us nothing about
• how many studies are involved,
• how good they are,
• who did them, or any other important information

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Example
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Find defects in Rhetorical speech using
standards!
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Fact
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