APES

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APES

• Chapter 2 Science Review

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Environmental Science

• Some areas of ES research are experimental and
  lab-based
• Most research is field-based, involving the study
  of highly complex FEEDBACK LOOPS
• ES research is characterized by
• A focus on CONNECTIONS INTERACTIONS
• LONG time periods
• SYNERGISTIC connections

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Experimental Design

• Problem
• Question to be answered
• Hypothesis
• Scientifically testable statement
• Independent or Manipulated Variable
• The one(s) being tested or changed

• Dependent or Responding Variable
• The one(s) being measured
• Control Group
• No M.V. (for comparison)
• Constants
• All other variables influencing the outcome

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Precision vs. Accuracy

• Accuracy
• The nearness of a measurement to an agreed
  standard (ex. how close to 1kg is a 1kg standard
  weight on a particular balance?)
• Precision
• The degree of reproducibility and consistency of
  a measuring device throughout multiple
  measurements

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Energy Matter

• Fixed amounts of each in the universe
• Can be converted interchangeably (e mc2)
• Earth is an open system regarding energy
• Earth is a closed system regarding matter
• Energy Mass Laws
• 1 Energy/Matter cannot be created or destroyed
• 2 Energy is always converted to lower quality
  forms whenever work is done

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High vs. Low Quality Matter

• High Quality Matter
• Concentrated, easy to extract

• Low Quality Matter
• Dispersed, difficult to extract

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Atomic Structure

• The nucleus is tiny and very dense
• The volume is almost entirely the electron cloud

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Nuclear Chemistry Review

• Three types of radiation
• Alpha (He nucleus)
• Beta (electrons)
• Gamma (EMR wave)
• Differences in penetration
• Alpha (sheet of paper)
• Beta (block of wood)
• Gamma (concrete wall)

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Fission and Fusion

• Fission
• 1 nucleus splits into fragments (chain reaction)
• Ex. Nuclear reactor

• Fusion
• 2 or more nuclei fuse together
• Ex. The Sun

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Energy Laws

• First Law
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
  transformed or converted between different forms
• Ex. Solar energy to chemical energy during
  Photosynthesis
• During work, energy in ALWAYS equals energy
  out
• You cannot get something for nothing

• Second Law
• During work, some energy is degraded into lower
  quality forms
• High Quality (ex. Electricity, Nuclear Fission)
• Medium Quality (ex. Normal sunlight)
• Low Quality (ex. Geothermal heat)
• You always end up with less useable energy than
  you start with
• You cannot break even

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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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pH and Solutions
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What is pH?

• pH stands for Potential/Power of Hydrogen
• The negative logarithm of the concentration of
  hydrogen ions in a solution
• A high number a very small concentration of H
  ions in solution
• A low number a very high concentration of H
  ions in solution
• Logarithmic scale each number on the scale
  represents 10x more or less H

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Elements Important to the Study of Environmental
Science
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Ions Important to the Study of Environmental
Science
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Types of Pollution

• Degradable
• Ex. Human sewage, organic matter
• Persistent
• Ex. DDT, certain plastics, laminates
• Non-degradable
• Ex. heavy metals, lead mercury

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Through-Put Economies

• High Through-Put Economy
• High consumption of both matter and energy
• Matter Recycling Economy
• Reduced matter consumption
• Still very high energy consumption
• Low Through-Put Economy
• Reduced matter and energy consumption
• Is this possible to achieve?

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Inputs, Throughput, and Outputs of an Economic
System
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Core Case Study Carrying Out a Controlled
Scientific Experiment

• F. Herbert Bormann, Gene Likens, et al. Hubbard
  Brook Experimental Forest in NH (U.S.)
• Compared the loss of water and nutrients from an
  uncut forest (control site) with one that had
  been stripped (experimental site)

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The Effects of Deforestation on the Loss of Water
and Soil Nutrients
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60
40
Nitrate (NO3 ) concentration (milligrams per
liter)
Undisturbed (control) watershed
Disturbed (experimental) watershed
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1972
1971
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
Year
Fig. 2-4, p. 37
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The Second Law of Thermodynamics in Living Systems