Argumentation: A Primer

1
Argumentation A Primer

• Happiness is when everyone agrees that Im
  right!

2
What is Argumentation?

• Argumentation -- clear thinking, logic to
  convince reader of the soundness of a particular
  opinion on a controversial issue.
• Persuasion -- emotions used to convince reader to
  take a particular action.
• Persuasion and argumentation are often combined.

3
Arguments must have the following

• Logos
• Ethos
• Pathos

4
Logos

• "Logos" or soundness of argument -- facts,
  statistics, examples, and authoritative
  statements to support viewpoint.
• Evidence must be unified, specific, sufficient,
  accurate, and representative. This is the main
  strength of the argument.

5
Pathos

• "Pathos" -- appeals to readers' needs, values,
  and attitudes, encouraging them to commit
  themselves to a viewpoint or course of action.
• Pathos is derived from language (connotative --
  strong emotional overtones).

6
Ethos

• "Ethos" -- credibility and integrity. Prove to
  the reader that you're knowledgeable and
  trustworthy.
• Give a balanced approach, acknowledge differing
  points of view give lots of support for your
  viewpoint.

7
There are two basic types of reasoning

• Inductive reasoning -- draw a conclusion from
  using specific details.
• (Small to big)

• Deductive reasoning -- apply a generalization to
  a specific case.
• (Big to small)

8
There are lots of things to consider.

• First There are perfectly wonderful, reasonable,
  intelligent people who disagree with you
  absolutely. (And there are dunderheads who may
  agree with you.) The moral judge the argument,
  not the person.

9
Know what you know.

• You need to be certain of what you know as well
  as of what you are uncertain -- that knowledge
  affects your use of proofs as well as your use of
  language.

10
Dont offend.

• Goodwill -- readers are more likely to listen to
  an argument if it is reasoned, cool, calm, and
  relatively dispassionate.
• Focus on the issues, not the reader or opponent.

11
Know the history.

• Be able to identify the controversy of your issue
  and why there is a controversy in the first place.

12
Know all sides.

• You should be able to see the validity of both
  (all) sides of an issue.
• Also, you should be able to determine what the
  two sides may agree on.

13
What can you do with both sides?

• Refutations -- restate opposing points of view,
  acknowledge the validity of some of the arguments
  given by opponents, point out common grounds,
  present evidence for your position.
• You must be able to refute the opposition in
  order to have a strong argument (and get an A
  on your essay).

14
Things to avoid

• faulty conclusions, post hoc fallacy
  (cause-effect sequential but not related) non
  sequitur fallacy (conclusion has no connection to
  evidence) ad hominem argument (attach person
  rather than point of view)

15
More things to avoid

• faulty authority (when authority is in doubt)
  begging the question (reader expected to accept a
  controversial premise without proof) false
  analogy (two things share all characteristics if
  they share only a few) either-or fallacy
  (viewpoint can only have one of two solutions)
  red herring argument (deflect attention).

16
Structure

• There is no one better way to structure an
  argument. Whatever works, whatever is actually
  convincing, is the right way to do it.
• Do consider the Rogerian method, however,
  because it does contain all elements of a strong
  argument.

17
More stuff to think about

• Always be thorough. Find out what you dont know
  -- do your research -- and dont spout nonsense.
• Avoid loaded words and prejudicial statements --
  generalizations that are vague and often
  misleading and inaccurate.

18
Language issues

• Vary sentences structure.
• Be aware of homonyms.
• Be aware of transitions.
• Be aware of connotations and denotations.
• Have a clearly identifiable thesis.

19
Things to remember.

• Avoid announcements. Please never say something
  like, In this paper I will discuss That is
  fine for papers written in science or math
  classes, but it is not acceptable in an English
  class.

20
Possible Beginnings

• Broad statement narrowing to a limited subject
  (end introduction with thesis statement)
• Brief anecdote leading up to thesis
• Comparative or opposite ideas leading up to
  thesis
• Series of short questions leading to thesis
• Quotes leading to thesis
• Refutation of a common belief leading up to a
  thesis
• Dramatic fact or statistic leading to thesis

21
Possible Conclusions

• Summary of information presented (useful if your
  argument is long and/or complicated)
• Prediction based on information presented
• Quotation leading to concluding statement
• Statistics leading to concluding statement
• Recommendation or call for action

22
Double Check These

• Does the paper answer the assignment given?
• Does the paper address your audience?
• Does the paper have the appropriate tone?
• Does the paper serve the purpose intended?
• Is the thesis clear and easily understood?
• Add information where it appears to lack
  adequate support.

23
More to remember

• Delete useless or confusing information.
• Do all of the supporting statements actually
  support the thesis?
• Are clear transitions used between thoughts,
  ideas, paragraphs?
• Are the introduction and conclusion adequate and
  appropriate?
• Is your organization systematic and methodical
  (consistent throughout the paper)?

24
More to consider

• Consider sentence structure and length.
• Reconsider word choice. Never use profanity or
  slang. Always identify abbreviations.
• Proofread for correct grammar, punctuation,
  typing errors.
• REPEAT ALL OF THIS UNTIL YOU ARE SATISFIED (or
  cannot stand to look at it anymore).

25
Last Items

• Give your paper a title
• Make sure that your paper is on correct paper
  stock, typed, and legible.
• Make sure that your paper is properly identified
  with your name, course title, date, and paper
  title
• Make a copy of your paper and keep it as a record
  for yourself
• Turn in your paper on time