Chapter 7: Human Memory

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Chapter 7 Human Memory
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Human Memory Basic Questions

• How does information get into memory?
• How is information maintained in memory?
• How is information pulled back out of memory?

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Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory
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Encoding Getting Information Into Memory

• The role of attention
• Focusing awareness
• Selective attention selection of input
• Filtering early or late?
• Multitasking

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Figure 7.3 Models of selective attention
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Levels of ProcessingCraik and Lockhart (1972)

• Incoming information processed at different
  levels
• Deeper processing longer lasting memory codes
• Encoding levels
• Structural shallow
• Phonemic intermediate
• Semantic deep

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Figure 7.4 Levels-of-processing theory
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Figure 7.5 Retention at three levels of
processing
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Enriching Encoding Improving Memory

• Elaboration linking a stimulus to other
  information at the time of encoding
• Thinking of examples
• Visual Imagery creation of visual images to
  represent words to be remembered
• Easier for concrete objects Dual-coding theory
• Self-Referent Encoding
• Making information personally meaningful

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Storage Maintaining Information in Memory

• Analogy information storage in computers
  information storage in human memory
• Information-processing theories
• Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
• Sensory, Short-term, Long-term

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Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of
memory storage
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Sensory Memory

• Brief preservation of information in original
  sensory form
• Auditory/Visual approximately ¼ second
• George Sperling (1960)
• Classic experiment on visual sensory store

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Figure 7.8 Sperlings (1960) study of sensory
memory
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Short Term Memory (STM)

• Limited capacity magical number 7 plus or minus
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• Chunking grouping familiar stimuli for storage
  as a single unit
• Limited duration about 20 seconds without
  rehearsal
• Rehearsal the process of repetitively
  verbalizing or thinking about the information

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Figure 7.9 Peterson and Petersons (1959) study
of short-term memory
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Short-Term Memory as Working Memory

• STM not limited to phonemic encoding
• Loss of information not only due to decay
• Baddeley (1986) 3 components of working memory
• Phonological rehearsal loop
• Visuospatial sketchpad
• Executive control system

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Working Memory Capacity

• Influences ability to control focus of attention
• Capacity correlates positively with measures of
  high-level cognitive abilities
• Critical to complex cognitive processes and
  intelligence
• Declines gradually during late adulthood

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Long-Term Memory Unlimited Capacity

• Permanent storage?
• Flashbulb memories
• Recall through hypnosis
• Debate are STM and LTM really different?
• Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding
• Decay vs. Interference based forgetting

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How is Knowledge Representedand Organized in
Memory?

• Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies
• Schemas and Scripts
• Semantic Networks
• Connectionist Networks and PDP Models

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Figure 7.13 Conceptual hierarchies and long-term
memory.
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Figure 7.14 A semantic network..
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Retrieval Getting InformationOut of Memory

• The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon a failure in
  retrieval
• Retrieval cues
• Recalling an event
• Context cues
• Reconstructing memories
• Misinformation effect
• Source monitoring, reality monitoring

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Forgetting When Memory Lapses

• Retention the proportion of material retained
• Recall
• Recognition
• Relearning
• Ebbinghauss Forgetting Curve

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Figure 7.17 Ebbinghaus forgetting curve for
nonsense syllables
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Figure 7.18. Recognition versus recall in the
measurement of retention.
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Why Do We Forget?

• Ineffective Encoding
• Decay theory
• Interference theory
• Proactive
• Retroactive
• Forgetting as adaptation

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Figure 7.19 Retroactive and proactive
interference
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Retrieval Failure

• Encoding Specificity
• Transfer-Appropriate Processing
• Repression
• Authenticity of repressed memories
• Memory illusions
• Controversy

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Figure 7.21 Estimates of the prevalence of
childhood physical and sexual abuse
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Figure 7.22 The prevalence of false memories
observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)
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The Physiology of Memory

• Biochemistry
• Alteration in synaptic transmission
• Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems
• Protein synthesis
• Neural circuitry
• Localized neural circuits
• Reusable pathways in the brain
• Long-term potentiation
• Neurogenesis

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The Physiology of Memory

• Anatomy
• Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
• Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus,
• Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum

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Figure 7.23 The anatomy of memory
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Figure 7.24 Retrograde versus anterograde amnesia
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Are There Multiple Memory Systems?

• Declarative vs. Procedural
• Semantic vs. Episodic
• Prospective vs. Retrospective

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Figure 7.25 Theories of independent memory
systems
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Improving Everyday Memory

• Engage in adequate rehearsal
• Distribute practice and minimize interference
• Emphasize deep processing and transfer-appropriate
  processing
• Organize information
• Use verbal mnemonics
• Use visual mnemonics