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Studying viable free markets in Peer-to-Peer file exchange applications without Altruistic Agents

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Title: Studying viable free markets in Peer-to-Peer file exchange applications without Altruistic Agents


1
2006
2
Índice
  1. Redes P2P
  2. Redes ad-hoc
  3. Grid computing
  4. Redes cooperativas
  5. Redes sociales
  6. Problemas y soluciones

3
Definición
  • Un sistema peer-to-peer (p2p) es un sistema
    distribuido sin ningún control centralizado y
    donde la funcionalidad de cada nodo es idéntico.

Single servants are less powerful than a single
server but the collective of many servants is
more powerful than any single server by Daniel
Stephen Rule
4
Definiciones
Preocupación sobre la red
Preocupación sobre la aplicación
5
Definiciones
Redes completamente descentralizadas con
estructuras no-jerárquicas y comunicación
simétrica - Stoica et al.
Preocupación sobre la red
Preocupación sobre la aplicación
6
Definiciones
Los sistemas P2P acentúan la cooperación entre
entidades (conocidas como Peers) que son
esencialmente iguales y que se proporcionan
servicios entre ellas. P2P acentúa la
descentralización, la resistencia y la
explotación de recursos de la red - Coulson.
Preocupación sobre la red
Preocupación sobre la aplicación
7
Definiciones
Elementos relacionados que se aprovechan de los
recursos disponibles de la red - Shirky
Preocupación sobre la red
Preocupación sobre la aplicación
8
Topología de la red
9
Topologías P2P
10
Propiedades
  • No existe un control centralgt Sistema
    distribuido
  • No existe jerarquía
  • Todos los nodos son a clientes y servidores
  • La comunicación entre nodos es simétrica
  • No existe una visión global
  • Escalabilidad
  • Disponibilidad para cualquier peer
  • Los peers son autónomos
  • Sistema globalmente poco fiable
  • Aspectos de robustez y seguridad

11
Avances
Que ha permitido llegar hasta este punto?
Que posibilidades ofrece?
Aprovechar la potencia del ordenador en casa y la
oficina
Computación y Comunicación Ubicua
Historia / Evolución (Computación)
Intercambio usuario-usuario, minimiza los
vínculos con intermediarios
Cultura / Sociedad (Servicios / Intercambio de
ficheros)
Gran extensión de conexión a Internet
Comunicaciones de banda ancha, Wireless, nuevos
tipos de Redes.
Comunicación / Colaboración
Comunicaciones y colaboración
Incremento en la descentralización de Internet
Gran escalabilidad, mejor accesibilidad
Arquitectura
Estados descentralizados
Mejoras en la escalabilidad, disponibilidad y
anonimato
Algoritmos
12
Taxonomia
13
Ejemplos
  • Aplicaciones de intercambio de ficheros
    (Naptser,)
  • Bases de datos distribuidas
  • Computación distribuida (SETI,)
  • Comunicación distribuida (AOL Instant
    Messaging,)
  • Colaboración (Groove)
  • Juegos distribuidos
  • Redes Ad-hoc
  • Etc.

14
Groove
  • Aplicación Windows de colaboración.
  • Funciona contra un servidor central.
  • Empresa Groove Networks.
  • Servicios de colaboración
  • Intercambio de ficheros
  • Intercambio de mensajes o notas
  • Chat en modo texto y voz
  • Navegación Web sincronizada
  • Agenda y calendario
  • Es un sistema extensible

15
Groove
  • Integra varias aplicaciones en una.
  • Facilidad de uso.
  • Piloto de sala virtual de discusión en tiempo
    real.
  • Navegación individual o sincronizada.
  • Para colaborar hay que estar conectado.
  • Se pueden distribuir mensajes a usuarios que no
    están conectados
  • Los mensajes pasan por el servidor
  • Se pueden definir servicios de colaboración
    directa entre usuarios.

VIDEO grv-sf
16
SETI
  • Es un proyecto de la Universidad de Berkeley para
    buscar vida extraterrestre inteligente.
  • El método
  • Análisis de ondas electromagnéticas provenientes
    del espacio exterior, obtenidas de
    radiotelescopios.
  • La técnica
  • Buscar patrones, series, repeticiones en el ruido
    de fondo captado.
  • El sistema está formado por un grupo de
    ordenadores centrales que reciben las emisiones
    de los telescopios y dividen la información
    recibida en bloques
  • Los bloques se entregan a la red de PCs para
    buscar resultados parciales y luego ensamblarlos
  • Utiliza ciclos inactivos de CPU de los
    ordenadores a través de Internet
  • Con este sistema se procesa más del doble que con
    el ordenador más potente
  • ASCI White 12 Teraflops/s (110 millones de )
  • SETI_at_home 31 Teraflops/s (0,5 M, 3,3 millones
    de PCs)

17
SETI
18
SETI
VIDEO Seti2401
RADIO radio_network_comercial
19
Node versus Agent
  • An agent is one that is capable of flexible
    autonomous action in order to meet its design
    objectives, where flexibility means three things
  • Pro-activeness the ability of exhibit
    goal-directed behavior by taking the initiative
  • Reactivity the ability of percept the
    environment, and respond in a timely fashion to
    changes that occur in it
  • Social ability the ability of interaction with
    other agents (include human)
  • A node follows a protocol established in the
    system.

20
Distribución de contenido en P2P
  • Beneficios
  • Mejora dramáticamente la velocidad gt Escalable
  • Servidores con pocos requerimientos gt Barato
  • Desafíos
  • Requiere incentivas para la cooperación
  • Seguridad
  • Manejabilidad
  • Variabilidad en los anchos de banda
  • Necesidad de algoritmos distribuidos

21
Topologías
  • Centralized service location, e.g. Napster
  • Flooded request model / Distributed service
    location with flooding, e.g. Gnutella
  • Document routing model / Distributed search
    hashing / Distributed service location with
    hashing, e.g. Pastry, Chord
  • BitTorrent

22
Centralized service location
23
Distributed service location with flooding
24
Gnutella protocol
25
Gnutella protocol
26
Kazaa un Gnutella jerarquizado
27
Distributed search hashing
  • Internet-scale distributed hash tables
  • Equally valuable to large-scale distributed
    systems?
  • Peer-to-peer systems
  • CAN, Chord, Pastry,
  • Large-scale storage management systems
  • Publius, OceanStore, CFS
  • Mirroring on the Web

28
DHT Step 1 The Hash
29
DHT Step 2 Routing
30
Pastry
  • Completely decentralized, scalable, and
    self-organizing
  • Seeks to minimize the distance messages travel,
    according to a scalar proximity metric like the
    number of IP routing hops
  • In a Pastry network,
  • Each node has a unique id, nodeId
  • Presented with a message and a key, Pastry node
    efficiently routes the message to the node with a
    nodeId that is numerically closest to the key

31
Pastry NodeId
32
Pastry Routing
33
Chord System Model
  • Load balance
  • Chord acts as a distributed hash function,
    spreading keys evenly over the nodes.
  • Decentralization
  • Chord is fully distributed no node is more
    important than any other.
  • Scalability
  • The cost of a Chord lookup grows as the log of
    the number of nodes, so even very large systems
    are feasible.
  • Availability
  • Chord automatically adjusts its internal tables
    to reflect newly joined nodes as well as node
    failures, ensuring that, the node responsible for
    a key can always be found.
  • Flexible naming
  • Chord places no constraints on the structure of
    the keys it looks up.

34
Chord System Model
  • The application interacts with Chord in two main
    ways
  • Chord provides a lookup(key) algorithm that
    yields the IP address of the node responsible for
    the key.
  • The Chord software on each node notifies the
    application of changes in the set of keys that
    the node is responsible for.

35
Chord Scalable key Location
Definition of variables for node n, using m-bit
identifiers.
36
Chord Scalable key Location
(a) The finger intervals associated with node 1.
(b) Finger tables and key locations for a net
with nodes 0, 1, and 3, and keys 1, 2, and 6.
37
Chord Node joins
(a) Finger tables and key locations after node 6
joins. (b) Finger table and key locations after
node 1 leaves. Changed entries are shown
in black , and unchanged in gray.
38
Chord
39
Chord routing
40
Chord routing
41
Chord node insertion
42
Chord node insertion (contd)
43
Chord node insertion (contd)
44
El problema de los free riders
  • From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In economics and political science free riders
are actors who consume more than their fair share
of a resource, or shoulder less than a fair share
of the costs of its production. The free rider
problem is the question of how to prevent free
riding from taking place, or at least limit its
negative effects.
45
BitTorrent
  • Usa ideas básicas de la teoría de juegos para
    eliminar el problema de los free-riders
  • Los sistemas anteriores no trataban dicho
    problema

VIDEO FutureOfBitTorrent
46
BitTorrent Dilema del prisionero
47
BitTorrent
The main goal of BitTorrent concerning efficiency
is to be Pareto efficient, because this measure
is used often by economists as efficiency goal.
By definition an outcome of a game is Pareto
efficient if there is no other outcome that makes
every player at least as well off and at least
one player strictly better off. That is, a Pareto
Optimal outcome cannot be improved upon without
hurting at least one. In computer science terms,
seeking Pareto efficiency is a local optimization
problem in which pairs of counterparties see if
they can improve their lot together, and such
algorithms tend to lead to global optima.
48
BitTorrent Idea básica
  • Cortar un fichero en diferentes piezas
  • Replicar diferentes piezas en diferentes peers
  • Tan pronto como un peer dispone de una parte, él
    puede negociar con esto con otros peers
  • Con un poco de suerte, al final el peer será
    capaz de obtener todas las piezas para completar
    el fichero

49
BitTorrent Componentes básicos
  • Seed
  • Peer que dispone del fichero completo
  • Leacher
  • Peer que dispone de un fichero incompleto
  • A Torrent file
  • Componente pasivo
  • Ficheros son fragmentados en piezas de 256KB
  • El fichero contiene una lista de SHA1 hashes de
    todas las piezas que permite a los peers
    verificar la integridad del fichero
  • Típicamente hospedados en un servicio web
  • A Tracker
  • Componente activo
  • Permite a los peers encontrar otros peers
  • Devuelve una lista aleatoria de peers

50
BitTorrent Algoritmo
  • El orden en que las piezas son seleccionadas por
    los diferentes peers es una parte critica para el
    buen funcionamiento del sistema
  • Si un mal algoritmo es usado, se puede llegar a
    la situación donde cada peer tiene todas las
    piezas que estan disponibles y ninguno la pieza
    que no tiene nadie.
  • Si el seed se desconecta, el fichero no puede ser
    bajado complemtamente gt Existe altruismo

51
BitTorrent Primera pieza
  • Inicialmente, un peer no tiene nada con que
    negociar
  • Importante que él obtenga una pieza tan pronto
    como sea posible
  • Política Seleccionar una pieza al azar del
    fichero y bajarla

52
BitTorrent Choking (estrangular)
  • Es un mecanismo que asegura que los nodos
    cooperen y elimina el problema de los nodos
    free-riders.
  • La cooperación implica que el agente de upload
    sub-piezas que dispone
  • Choking es denegar upload a un peer
  • Las conexiones se mantienen abiertas así que el
    coste de montar las conexiones no aumenta
  • Basado en el concepto de teoría de juegos
  • Tit-for-tat con repetición

53
BitTorrent Choking Algorithm
  • El objetivo es tener varias conexiones
    bidireccionales abiertas continuamente
  • Un peer siempre unchockes un número fijo de peers
    (por defecto 4)
  • La decisión de chocke/unchoke se realiza sobre
    los ratios de download, los cuales son evaluados
    cada 20-segundos

54
BitTorrent revisited
55
Evolution of P2P Cooperation
56
P2P and economic vision
57
Definición
  • Del latín que significa para esto (a
    propósito). En general es una solución que ha
    sido hecho a medida. Puede usarse también para
    indicar que algo es improvisado
  • Una red "Ad Hoc" consiste en un grupo de
    ordenadores que se comunican cada uno
    directamente con los otros a través de las
    señales de radio sin usar un punto de acceso. Las
    configuraciones "Ad Hoc" son comunicaciones de
    tipo punto-a-punto
  • Particularidad esencial de las redes Ad hoc el
    movimiento de los nodos modifica la topología de
    la red. Este hecho se ve magnificado por el corto
    alcance de las tecnologías inalámbricas que
    suelen soportar las redes ad hoc (ej Bluetooth,
    WLAN)

58
Definición
  • An ad hoc network is a transitory association
    of mobile nodes which do not depend upon any
    fixed support infrastructure. ...Connection
    and disconnection is controlled by the distance
    among nodes and by willingness to collaborate in
    the formation of cohesive, albeit transitory
    community.
  • By Murphy et al. 1998

59
Uso
  • Imposible de predecir
  • Emergencias
  • Catástrofes
  • Imposible (difícil) de configurar
  • Redes de sensores
  • Redes cooperativas

60
Aspectos de la redes ad hoc
B
  • Como obtener información de A a B cuando todo
    entre esos nodos esta en movimiento?
  • Y que sucede con
  • Retraso
  • Rendimiento
  • Consumo de energía
  • Caminos fiables

A
61
Comparación redes Ad-hoc y P2P
  • P2P is based on an IP network
  • Ad-hoc is based on a mobile radio network
  • Mobile Ad-hoc and Peer-to-Peer Networks hold many
    similarities concerning their
  • routing algorithms and
  • network management principles
  • Both have to provide networking functionalities
    in a completely unmanaged and decentralized
    environment
  • i.e. To determine how queries (packets) are
    guided through the network

62
Comparación redes Ad-hoc y P2P
63
Diferencias redes Ad-hoc y P2P
64
Similaridades redes Ad-hoc y P2P
65
Definición
  • From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Grid computing is an emerging computing model
that provides the ability to perform higher
throughput computing by taking advantage of many
networked computers to model a virtual computer
architecture that is able to distribute process
execution across a parallel infrastructure.
66
P2P versus Grid computing
  • Ambas abordan el mismo problema.
  • Compartir recursos dentro de una comunidad
    virtual (pero no en las mismas comunidades).
  • Ambas realizan una misma aproximación.
  • Creación de capas cuya estructura no corresponde
    con la de la organización subyacente.
  • Las aplicaciones Grid generalmente usan gran
    cantidad de datos y cálculos.
  • Los problemas que abordan las aplicaciones P2P
    actuales no requieren de una gran intercambio de
    recursos entre los nodos.
  • Cada uno ha creado avances técnicos propios, pero
    en una dirección complementaria
  • Grid los ha dirigido en mejorar las
    infraestructuras pero no la tolerancia a fallos
  • P2P los ha dirigido en mejorar los fallos pero
    no las infraestructuras

67
Grid
Grids
P2P
Scale volatility
68
PlanetLab
  • Plataforma de test apra experimentar con
    aplicaciones P2P y Grid.
  • gt600 nodes, gt300 sites,
  • PlanteLab consorcio de 80 universidades,
    Intel, HP
  • Los usuarios ven un conjunto de Virtual Machines
    donde realizar tests.

69
PlanetLab
452 nodes 162 sites 450 research projects
  • Un sistema de tests abierto y a gran escala para
    aplicaciones P2P y servicios Grid.

70
Definition
  • Bands of computer users in urban areas around the
    world are pioneering a new type of network called
    cooperative networks. When two geographically
    distant devices need to communicate and cannot
    send messages directly to one another, the sender
    asks intermediate devices to forward its message
    to the recipient or another type of action. The
    ownership of the networked devices is divided
    among many, possibly self-interested,
    individuals. Despite that the network devices
    owners have no immediate interest in helping one
    another, they frequently configure their devices
    to forward traffic. The resulting collection of
    devices form a cooperative network.

71
Ejemplo Fon
  • La idea básica aquí es que la gente está de
    acuerdo en compartir de manera cooperativa su
    capacidad extra de conexión de banda ancha , a
    cambio de recibir acceso libre para otros
    miembros de la comunidad cuando se están
    desplazando a través de la ciudad.
  • Ejemplo FON de Martin Varsavsky
  • Modelo de negocio
  • Bill ofrece su ADSL por WiFi y es recompensado
  • Alien usa el WiFi y paga por el servicio

FON P2P WiFi cooperación
VIDEO Anuncio de FON en la 2 de TVE
72
Ejemplo Fon
73
Ejemplo Fon
74
Ejemlo Guifi.net
  • guifi.net és la suma de molts nodes que aporten
    connectivitat als usuaris. Cada node dóna servei
    als clients que estan a prop seu i a la vegada
    sinterconnecta amb altres nodes propers per
    crear una xarxa lliure, gratuïta, alternativa i
    dalta velocitat.

75
Definición
  • A social network is a social structure made of
    nodes which are generally individuals or
    organizations. It indicates the ways in which
    they are connected through various social
    familiarities ranging from casual acquaintance to
    close familial bonds. The term was first coined
    in 1954 by J. A. Barnes (in Class and Committees
    in a Norwegian Island Parish, "Human Relations").
    The maximum size of social networks tends to be
    around 150 people (Dunbar's number) and the
    average size around 124 (Hill and Dunbar, 2002).
  • Examples LinkedIn, Tribe, openBC, Ryze, MeetUp,
    eVite, MySpace

76
El problema de los free riders
  • From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In economics and political science free riders
are actors who consume more than their fair share
of a resource, or shoulder less than a fair share
of the costs of its production. The free rider
problem is the question of how to prevent free
riding from taking place, or at least limit its
negative effects.
77
El problema de los free riders
Free Riding on Gnutella by Eytan Adar and
Bernando A. Huberman
78
Sobreexplotación de los recursos (tragedy of
commons)
Freeriding and tragedy of the commons are two
major problems Nearly 70 of Gnutella users do
not share any file with the P2P community and
nearly 50 of all search responses come from the
top 1 of content sharing nodes. Therefore, nodes
that share resources are always congested and the
tragedy of the commons occurs. Freeriding and
tragedy of the commons are two major problems.
Therefore, nodes that share resources are always
congested and the tragedy of the commons occurs .
79
Políticas para detener/reducir estos problemas
One common approach has been to ignore
rationality problems and hope for the best. One
reason why these systems may work is that there
can be enough obedient users following a given
protocol, even when it might be rational not to
do so. Alternatively, existing systems may work
because there are enough rational users that
maximize their expected utility by the enjoyment
of providing a common good. This altruistic
behavior is outside of typical game-theoretic
models.
80
Incentive Mechanism
How to encourage cooperation among
strangers? Challenges large, dynamic groups
with anonymity, hidden action, hidden
information, and asymmetries of interest.
81
Incentive Mechanism
  • Tokens/currency
  • Appropriate for trading of multiple resource
    types
  • Examples Mojonation, KARMA, tycoon, ...
  • Barter/taxation
  • Appropriate for single commodity type
  • Sometimes called tit-for-tat or bit-for-bit
  • Examples BitTorrent, ESM
  • Reciprocity
  • Direct reciprocity (repetition)
  • Indirect reciprocity (reputation)

82
Direct Reciprocity
Bob
Alice
  • Repetition encourages cooperation
  • e.g., Prisoner's Dilemma game
  • one-shot game mutual defection is dominant
    strategy infinitely
  • repeated game mutual cooperation is dominant
  • Simple tit-for-tat (TFT) strategy works very well
    in iterated prisoners' dilemma (IPD) tournaments
  • Clustering (e.g., clubs) and server selection
    (e.g., CoopNet) may facilitate direct
    reciprocity

83
BitTorrent Dilema del prisionero
84
Indirect Reciprocity
Bob
Alice
Carol
  • Peers earn reputation via cooperation
  • Reputable peers receive preferential treatment
  • Implementation overhead for maintaining
    reputation information
  • Various proposals
  • Image scoring
  • Free Haven
  • Eigentrust
  • Differentiated admission
  • CONFIDANT

85
Mechanism design
The idea in mechanism design (MD) is to define
the strategic situation, or rules of the game, so
that the system as a whole exhibits good behavior
in equilibrium when self-interested nodes pursue
self-interested strategies. Mechanism design can
be thought of as inverse game theory where game
theory reasons about how agents will play a game,
MD reasons about how to design games that produce
desired outcomes.
86
Mechanism Design
Design of protocols such that in equilibrium,
the outcome can be shown to exhibit certain
properties.
Mapping from strategies (actions) of agents to
payoffs.
Mapping from strategies (actions) of agents to
payoffs.
Mapping from strategies (actions) of agents to
payoffs.
87
Price of Anarchy (Selfishness and how to cope
with it)
How much does the society suffer by the lack of
coordination between players? The optimal social
utility function happens when we have a single
authority who dictates every agent what to do. In
contrast, when agents choose their own action, we
should study their behavior and compare the
obtained social utility with the optimal one.
88
Economy
Economics is the study of how societies use
scarce resources to produce valuable commodities
and distribute them among different
people. Samuelson, Nordhaus - 1998 Economics,
p. 4
89
Beyond Homo Economicus (rationality revisited)
  • Altruism
  • Information gift economies
  • e.g. linux, creative commons, wikipedia, ...
  • Warm-glow
  • "Digital Robin Hoods"
  • Strong reciprocity
  • Reciprocate (reward cooperators and/or punish
    defectors) even if action reduces own utility
  • Ultimatum, Dictator, and Public Goods games
    50-60 of subjects exhibit reciprocal behavior,
    20 exhibit selfish behavior
  • Considerations of fairness and social norms
  • Even selfish individuals may not be perfectly
    selfish
  • bounded rationality or near rationality vs.
    hyperrationality
  • imperfect knowledge imperfect execution (e.g.,
    trembling hand)

90
Assignment problem
  • Resource allocation the aggregate power of all
    computers on the Internet is huge. In a dream
    world" this aggregate power will be optimally
    allocated online among all connected processors.
    One could imagine CPU-intensive jobs
    automatically migrating to CPU-servers, caching
    automatically done by computers with freedisk
    space, etc. Access to data, communication lines,
    and even physical attachments (such as printers)
    could all be allocated across the Internet. This
    is clearly a dicult optimization problem even
    within tightly linked systems, and is addressed,
    in various forms and with varying degrees of
    success, by all distributed operating systems.
  • The same type of allocation over the Internet
    requires handling an additional problem the
    resources belong to different parties who may not
    allow others to freely use them. The algorithms
    and protocols may, thus, need to provide some
    motivation for these owners to play along".

91
Conclusiones
  • Redes social es un tema de investigación vivo y
    que engloba muchas disciplinas
  • Esperamos nuevas que en los próximos años
    aparezcan nuevas killer applications que cambien
    nuestras vidas (Skype, )
  • Tecnologías que descentralizan pueden ayudar a
    construir comunidades sociales

92
Referencias
  • P2P Working Group
  • http//www.peer-to-peerwg.org
  • Grid Forum P2P
  • https//forge.gridforum.org/projects/p2p
  • FreeNet
  • http//freenetproject.org
  • SETI_at_Home
  • http//setiathome.ssl.berkeley.edu/

93
Referencias
  • "BitTorrent Economics Paper" , Bram Cohen
  • "BitTorrent protocol specification" , Bram Cohen
  • "BitTorrent Resource Availability Analysis" ,
    Brian Greinke and James Hsia. (Rice)
  • "Dissecting BitTorrent Five Months in a
    Torrent's Lifetime" , M. Izal, G. Urvoy-Keller,
    E.W. Biersack, P.A. Felber, A. Al Hamra, and L.
    Garc es-Erice. (Institut Eurecom, France)
  • Pollution in P2P file Sharing Systems
    http//cis.poly.edu/ross/papers/pollution.pdf
  • Rationality and Self-Interest in Peer to Peer
    Networks by Jeffrey Shneidman and David C.
    Parkes
  • An Excess-Based Economic Model for Resource
  • Allocation in Peer-to-Peer Networks by
    Christian Grothoff

94
Referencias
  • In Search of Homo Swappus Evolution of
    Cooperation in Peer-to-Peer Systems by John
    Chuang
  • The Past and Future of Multiagent Systems by
    José M. Vidal
  • Structure in Articial Societies by Josep Maria
    Pujol
  • Guifi.net http//guifi.net/ca/book/print/371
  • Reputation and Location Privacy in Cooperative
    Networks by Jonathan Bredin

95
Referencias
  • "Multiagent Systems by G.Weiss
  • "Multi-Agent Systems by J. Ferber
  • "Foundations of Distributed AI by G. M. P.
    O'Hare and N. R. Jennings
  • "Readings in Agents by M. Singh and M. Huhns.
  • An Introduction to Multiagent Systems by
    Michael Wooldridge

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Questiones
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Questions or more information
dconrado_at_lsi.upc.edu
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