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History of Computing

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Title: History of Computing


1
History of Computing
  • Definition of Computing
  • Computing is the study of systematic processes
    that describe and transform information their
    theory, analysis, design, efficiency,
    implementation, and application. The fundamental
    question underlying all computing is, What can
    and cannot be automated? (adapted from Denning
    et. al., Computing as a Discipline,
    Communications of the ACM, January, 1989).

2
History of Computing
  • What is Process?
  • How we do things
  • How we specify what we do
  • How we specify what kinds of things were
    processing

3
History of Computing
  • What is an Algorithm?
  • Precise description of a process
  • Specifies exactly what is to be done in what
    order
  • Uses terms that can be completely defined and
    understood
  • Similar to a recipe
  • Word algorithm is derived from name of Persian
    textbook author al-Khowârizmî (approx. A.D. 825)
  • Word originally referred to process of using
    arithmetic computations using Arabic numerals

4
History of Computing
  • A goal of computing
  • If we
  • Develop a computing machine
  • Specify a precise algorithm, represent the data
    used, and devise a way to translate all of this
    into a language (encoding) that our computing
    machine can understand
  • Then,
  • Our computing machine can accurately,
    consistently, and more quickly carry out our
    computation for us

5
History of Computing
  • Prehistoric People Groups
  • Used fingers for counting, and length of hands
    and arms for measurements
  • Kept track of larger numbers, such as number of
    animals in herds, using small pebbles

6
History of Computing
  • People of Egypt, China and ancient Babylonia
  • By 3000 B.C., had developed written symbols to
    represent numbers
  • Computational methods developed to save labor and
    solve practical eng., ag., bus., and gov.
    problems (applied math)
  • Applications included measuring time, drawing
    straight lines, counting money, and computing
    taxes
  • Developed tables for multiplication, square and
    cube roots, exponents, formulas for quadratic
    equations
  • Babylonians and Egyptians not systematic
    reasoners trial-and-error methods not always
    precise

7
History of Computing
  • Practical examples of geometry in ancient Egypt
  • Land surveying and navigation
  • Egypt was the bread basket of the world
  • Annual Nile River flooding fertilized plains but
    made it difficult to mark property
  • Geometry used to survey fields and reestablish
    property boundaries
  • Navigation required for food distribution
  • Building of pyramids required extensive
    measurements

8
History of Computing
  • Greece
  • Between 600 and 300 B.C., inherited mathematical
    knowledge from Egypt and Babylon
  • Were the first to separate study of mathematics
    from application to practical problems
  • Developed foundation of formal logic stated
    formal axioms, precise definitions, and patterns
    of valid reasoning
  • Pythagoras, Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy, and
    others developed extensive knowledge of geometry,
    trigonometry, algebra, astronomy and physics

9
History of Computing
  • Aristotles modus ponen example
  • If a student is a CS major, then the student
    takes CS 1401.
  • You are a CS major.
  • Therefore, you take CS 1401.
  • Notice that the reasoning is valid, but this does
    not assure that the statements in the argument
    are true

10
History of Computing
  • Rome
  • Applied mathematics to practical tasks in
    business, civil engineering, and military work
  • Had little interest in study of pure mathematics

11
History of Computing
  • Middle Ages
  • No new mathematical advances in Europe for
    hundreds of years after fall of Rome in 476 A.D.
  • Arabs preserved mathematical knowledge developed
    by Greeks and Romans and expanded algebraic
    concepts
  • Concept of zero and decimal number system
    developed in India and used by Arabs
  • After 1100, growing commerce in Europe required
    an easier numbering system for merchants than
    Roman numerals
  • Europeans started using decimal number system
    and studying Arabic mathematical texts
  • During late Middle Ages, European mathematicians
    such as Fibonacci contributed to algebra and
    geometry

12
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • From 1400s to 1600s exploration of new lands
    required improved mathematics to support
    navigation, development of capitalism, and trade
  • Invention of mechanical printing press allowed
    rapid spread of new math texts

13
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • What was an important contribution of Francois
    Viète (1540-1603) ?

14
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • What was an important contribution of Francois
    Viète (1540-1603) ?
  • Francois Viète introduced the use of letters to
    stand for unknown numbers in formulas and
    equations (use of variables, important in
    computer science)
  • Example
  • c2 a2 b2

15
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • What was an important contribution of John
    Napier (1550-1617) ?

16
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • What was an important contribution of John
    Napier (1550-1617) ?
  • Scottish mathematician John Napier invented
    logarithms that took advantage of fact that
    addition is easier than multiplication
    log (a b) log a log b
  • Logarithms are inverse of power function
    log2 8 3
    because 23 8

17
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • Do you know what a slide rule is?

18
History of Computing
  • Heres Robby the Robot holding a giant-sized
    slide rule

                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
         
19
History of Computing
  • But the actual size was hand-held, with a middle
    sliding rule

                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
         
20
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • Facts about the slide rule
  • Edmund Gunter (1581-1626) invented forerunner of
    slide rule in 1620. Slide rule invented around
    1630.
  • Slide rule is ruler-like device marked with
    logarithmic scales used to perform mathematical
    calculations.
  • Slide rule used extensively for mathematical
    calculations by students, engineers, scientists,
    military, and others until largely replaced by
    hand-held calculators, starting with HP models in
    1970s

21
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • Galileo (1564-1642) worked on mathematical
    applications in physical sciences
  • Rene Descartes (1596-1650) developed analytic
    geometry
  • Who designed and built what is believed to be the
    first digital calculator?

22
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • Who designed and built what is believed to be the
    first digital calculator? Wilhelm Schickard,
    in 1623
  • Automated addition and subtraction partially
    automated multiplication and division
  • Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) developed version of
    mechanical calculator called Arithmometer about
    20 years later just added and subtracted
  • Modern computer programming language named after
    Pascal

23
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • Who was a co-inventor of calculus along with Sir
    Isaac Newton?

24
History of Computing
  • Renaissance
  • Who was a co-inventor of calculus along with Sir
    Isaac Newton? Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
    (1646-1716)
  • What did he state about machines assisting with
    the work of calculation?
  • Invented the Leibniz wheel based upon Pascals
    work, which performed arithmetic automatically
  • Investigated binary arithmetic and proposed
    machine testing of hypotheses

25
History of Computing
  • 1700 and 1800s
  • Who was Charles Babbage (1791-1871) ?

26
History of Computing
  • 1700s and 1800s
  • Who was Charles Babbage (1791-1871) ?
  • A founding member of the British Royal
    Astronomical Society
  • In 1800s Englands sea power required accurate
    computations for calculating cannon shots from
    moving ships
  • Babbage developed concept for steam-powered
    Difference Engine in 1821 to produce math
    tables
  • Developed concept for Analytical Engine,
    designed to be general device for any kind of
    calculation and symbol manipulation
  • Similar in concept to modern computers,
    Analytical Engine designed to use punch
    cards unfortunately, working model never
    completed

27
History of Computing
  • 1700s and 1800s
  • Where did Babbage get the idea of using punch
    cards? From Joseph-Marie Jacquard of France
  • Many inventions during Industrial Revolution led
    to automation of tasks formerly done by hand
  • Jacquard invented automatic loom in 1804,
    improving on earlier punch card concept
  • Holes in card controlled which doors opened or
    closed for thread patterning
  • Similar cards with holes punched to represent
    data developed for use by modern computers

28
History of Computing
  • Jacquard Loom

29
History of Computing
  • Computer punch card

30
History of Computing
  • 1700s and 1800s
  • Why did the U.S. DOD name the new programming
    language it developed in 1979 Ada ?

31
History of Computing
  • 1700s and 1800s
  • Why did the U.S. DOD name the new programming
    language it developed in 1979 Ada ?
  • In honor of Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace , the first
    computer programmer
  • Daughter of the famous English poet Lord Byron,
    and trained in mathematics and science
  • Became colleague of Babbage after hearing about
    his ideas for Analytic Engine at a dinner party
  • Predicted in 1843 many uses for engine and
    developed first programs for it

32
History of Computing
  • What was George Booles (1815-1864) important
    contribution to the field of computer science?

33
History of Computing
  • What was George Booles (1815-1864) important
    contribution to the field of computer science?
  • Answer Boolean expressions
  • A largely self-educated Englishman, Boole worked
    on identifying fundamental operations, variables,
    and symbolic representations of both
  • Introduced and studied expressions that had only
    two values 1 for true
  • 0 for false

34
History of Computing
  • Booles ideas became foundation for logic study
  • Concepts are basis for arithmetic-logic circuitry
    design in digital computers

35
History of Computing
  • Late 1800s and 1900s - Herman Hollerith
  • Considered father of modern automatic computation
  • Worked on 1880 U.S. census and saw need for
    mechanization of recording and tabulating process
    as immigration increased
  • Won design competition for 1890 census by
    inventing equipment to tabulate and sort punched
    cards similar to ones used on Jacquard loom
  • Founded company Computing-Tabulating-Recording
    Company (CTR) that later changed name to IBM in
    1924

36
History of Computing
  • Late 1800s and 1900s - Herman Hollerith
    (contd.)
  • In Holleriths own words (An Electric Tabulating
    System, 1889)
  • Few, who have not come directly in contact
    with a census office, can form any adequate idea
    of the labor involved in the compilation of a
    census of 50,000,000 persons, as was the case in
    the last census, or of over 62,000,000, as will
    be the case in the census to be taken in June,
    1890 Although our population is constantly
    increasing, and although at each census more
    complicated combinations and greater detail are
    required in the various compilations, still, up
    to the present time, substantially the original
    method of compilation has been -239- employed
    that of making tally-marks in small squares and
    then adding and counting such tally-marks. While
    engaged in work upon the tenth census, the
    writer's attention was called to the methods
    employed in the tabulation of population
    statistics and the enormous expense involved.
    These methods were at the time described as
    "barbarous Some machine ought to be devised for
    the purpose of facilitating such tabulations.

37
History of Computing
  • 1900s Question Is it possible to state one
    consistent system of logical/mathematical axioms
    from which all mathematics can be derived?
  • Or..
  • Are there mathematical problems that are
    inherently unsolvable? (Is there a limit to how
    far the systematic reasoning methods first
    developed by the ancient Greeks can take us) ?

CS 1401 Source Andrew Bernat
38
History of Computing
  • 1900s Question Is it possible to state one
    consistent system of logical/mathematical axioms
    from which all mathematics can be derived?
  • Answer Mathematician David Hilbert (1862-1943)
    thought so. He proposed the existence of such a
    system for which all mathematics could be derived
  • Are there mathematical problems that are
    inherently unsolvable? (Is there a limit to how
    far the systematic reasoning methods first
    developed by the ancient Greeks can take us) ?
  • Answer Kurt Godel (1906-1978) proved in 1931
    that a sufficiently general formal system either
    must be inconsistent or must contain statements
    that cant be proved or disproved.

39
History of Computing
  • Mathematics were revolutionized
  • Mathematicians and logicians worked to define
    exactly what it means when they say they have a
    method to solve a problem.
  • One very influential answer came from Alan
    Turing. (1912-1954)
  • What is Alan Turing famous for?

40
History of Computing
  • What is Alan Turing famous for?
  • Answer Turing machine
  • Turing defined an effective computation as a
    specific kind of abstract machine
  • Became a major development in field of computing
  • Greatest impact was on design of digital computer

41
History of Computing
  • Late 1800s-1900s New Applications Drive
    Advances in Computing Design
  • Leonardo Torres y Quevedo (1852-1936), President
    of Academy of Sciences in Madrid , proposed
    chess-playing electromechanical version of
    Babbages machines
  • New scientific uses developed for Holleriths
    punched-card tabulating machine , such as
    calculating position of moon
  • Astronomer Wallace J. Eckert (1902-1971)
    recognized need for more scientific capability
    proposed several extensions to IBM tabulating
    machine

42
History of Computing
  • 1900s - Four new computing capacities identified
    by Howard T. Aiken (1900-1973). Ability to
  • Handle positive and negative numbers
  • Apply various mathematical formulas
  • Operate fully automatically
  • Perform long calculations in sequence

43
History of Computing
  • 1900s -
  • Mark I is not a missile. What is it?

44
History of Computing
  • 1900s -
  • Mark I is not a missile. What is it?
  • Answer A computing machine designed and built in
    1944 by Aiken and his engineers in collaboration
    with IBM engineers.
  • Instructions written on paper tape
  • Could multiply 2 numbers in 6 seconds !
  • Similar machine built by Bell Labs

45
History of Computing
  • 1900s -
  • How was a graduate student instrumental in
    linking the theory of computation and the design
    of computing machines?

46
History of Computing
  • 1900s -
  • How was a graduate student instrumental in
    linking the theory of computation and the design
    of computing machines?
  • Answer Claude E. Shannon, in masters thesis at
    MIT, showed how Boolean algebra could be used to
    analyze complex switching circuits
  • Pioneered systematic approach to design of
    switching circuits

47
History of Computing
  • 1900s -
  • The first fully electronic digital computer was
    named ABC. Why?

48
History of Computing
  • 1900s -
  • The first fully electronic digital computer was
    named ABC. Why?
  • Answer Atanasoff Berry Computer
  • Built in 1940 by John V. Atanasoff (1903- ),
    prof. at Iowa State University and grad. Student
    Clifford E. Berry
  • Used vacuum tubes and binary arithmetic
  • Influenced design of ENIAC

49
History of Computing
  • 1900s -
  • First modern computers developed in 1940s
  • Government and military requirements drove many
    early advances in computing
  • Accurate artillery tables needed for WWII,
    1939-1945
  • Automatic computations needed for atomic bomb
    development
  • Increasingly larger and more powerful computing
    machines were developed

50
History of Computing
  • 1900s What is ENIAC ?
  • Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer,
    worlds first electronic digital computer,
    developed by Army Ordnance to compute WWII
    ballistic firing tables
  • Completed in 1945, served as prototype for
    development of most other modern computers
  • Weighed over 30 tons, and stored a maximum of
    twenty 10-digit decimal numbers
  • Included logic circuitry design now standard in
    computers

51
History of Computing
  • 1900s ENIAC

52
History of Computing
  • 1954 - IBM's Naval Ordinance Research Calculator,
    the first supercomputer

53
History of Computing
  • 1954 Tubes in IBM's NORC

CS 1401
54
History of Computing
  • 1900s Who was John von Neumann (1903-1957) and
    what are characteristics of a von Neumann
    machine?

55
History of Computing
  • 1900s Who was John von Neumann (1903-1957) and
    what are characteristics of a von Neumann
    machine?
  • Famous Princeton University mathematician
    interested in both logic design and applied math
  • Investigated complex problems in fluid flow
    requiring intensive calculations
  • Developed characteristics of modern computers,
    which became known as von Neumann machine
  • Began working with ENIAC project in 1944
  • Took responsibility for logic design of new
    machine (EDVAC) planned to correct some of
    ENIACs shortcomings created detailed
    instruction set

56
History of Computing
  • 1900s - Some of von Neumanns Contributions
    (von Neumann machine)
  • Notation for describing logic aspects of
    computer circuitry
  • Concept of stored program (program and data can
    be stored in memory first program sorted and
    merged numbers in list)
  • Concept of serial operation, one step at a time,
    simplifying circuitry (now going in direction of
    parallel processing)
  • Use of binary arithmetic rather than decimal

57
History of Computing
  • 1900s and Beyond Hardware Generations
  • Can you describe five generations?

58
History of Computing
  • 1900s and Beyond Software Generations
  • Early machines machine language
  • Ex 10100101
  • Early 1950s assembly languages (symbolic )
  • Late 1950s and early 1960s high-level
    languages.Ex
  • FORTRAN (formula translator), John Backus,1954
  • COBOL (common business-oriented language), Grace
    Murray Harper and others, 1960
  • Pascal (Nicklaus Wirth, 1970)

59
History of Computing
  • 1900s and Beyond Software Generations
  • Move from procedural languages to object-oriented
    languages
  • C ? C
  • C developed at Bell Labs starting in 1979
    (named in 1983), C with Classes
  • Java (James Gosling and others at Sun
    Microsystems) developed early 1990s, released
    1995 platform independence lent itself to
    Internet use
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