Challenges to Union

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Challenges to Union

• Ethnicity and National Identity in Europe

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Key Terms

• State
• Nation
• Ethnic Group
• State-Nation
• Ethnic-Nation

Ethnie
Nation
State
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State

• A Political unit which maintains a monopoly on
  the deployment of organized violence within a
  particular territory

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Ethnic Group

• Comprehensive Definition
• a collective proper name
• a myth of common ancestry
• shared historical memories
• one or more differentiating elements of common
  culture
• an association with a specific 'homeland'
• a sense of solidarity for significant sectors of
  the population

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Nation

• Comprehensive definition
• a collective proper name
• occupation of a historic territory
• integrated territorial economy and communications
  infrastructure
• common political myths and memories
• mass, public culture

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Nationalism

• A particularist social and political movement for
  attaining identity, unity and autonomy on behalf
  of a social group, whose leaders believe it to
  constitute an actual or potential 'nation.
• - A universal ideology which posits that
• The world is divided into nations, each with its
  own particular character
• The nation is the proper source of political
  power
• Everyone must belong to/owe primary loyalty to
  their nation
• Every nation must seek full autonomy
• World order must be based on free nations

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Primary Secondary Ethnic Groups

• Primary Ethnic Groups consider themselves/are
  considered indigenous inhabitants of a territory
  (ie. English in England, Maori in NZ, Zulus in
  KwaZulu-Natal, Malays in Malaysia)

• Secondary Ethnic Groups consider themselves/are
  considered to be indigenous to another territory
  (British-Pakistanis, Irish-Americans, Chinese in
  Indonesia)

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Ethnonationalism

• Territorial ethnic movements seeking autonomy or
  independence
• peripheral to the union OR
• pro-Europe
• 'Europe of the regions'
• No threat to EU

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'Europe of the nations'

• Different type of ethnicity and nationalism
• Pose a challenge to the EU
• Dominant Nationhood
• Ethnic minorities/immigrant minorities
• Dominant ethnicity

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The EU A cosmopolitan project

• Long idea of establishing a realm of 'universal'
  law and governance in Europe
• Began with the 'European Idea' of reunifying the
  continent under one church and one empire
• Collapse of Roman Empire and the rise of the
  Reformation led to periodic attempts
• Sully, Podiebrad seek comity among nations and
  return to Latin-Christendom ideal

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Enlightenment Europeanism

• Penn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and others
• Were cosmopolitan liberals
• Europeanism and cosmopolitanism linked
• Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace,
  prosperity and Enlightenment
• St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a
  sentiment already took precedence over
  nationalism
• St Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of Europe
• End to Papal and Roman dreams harmony among
  peoples rather than rulers

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The Evolution of the European Idea

• Napoleon speaks of one European fatherland
• After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas
  influential and popular. Influenced Lemonnier's
  Les Etats-Unis d'Europe (1872)
• Revival of interest in St Simon after WWI
• Most schemes were federal, though some post-WWI
  radicals rejected the nation outright
• Paneuropa (1923) and other organisations lobby
• Link between world unity and European unity,
  between peace organisations and paneuropean ones

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Diplomatic Pressure of Paneuropean Groups

• Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi writes
  Pan-Europa (1923) manifesto. Links to French
  politicians like Herriot, Loucheur, Leger, Briand
• Edouard Herriot, 1925 'My greatest wish is to
  see one day the United States of Europe become a
  reality'
• First Pan-European Congress, 1926. Sponsored by
  Chancellor Seipel of Austria
• Many Paneuropeans also strongly supported the
  League of Nations
• Briand's Memorandum on a European Federal System
  (1930) circulated to European statesmen

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EU structure

• Degree of centralisation varies by function
• A Federation (i.e. 'State') in monetary affairs,
  agricultural, trade and environmental policy.
  Also in legal-social aspects and citizenship
• A Confederation in social and economic policy,
  consumer protection, internal affairs
• An International Organisation in foreign affairs

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Council of Europe's Cultural Cosmopolitanism

• Developed European flag with 12 golden stars
  (1955)
• Established 5 May 1949 as Europe Day (1964)
• Anthem based on Beethoven's Ode to Joy (1972)
• Has 46 members today distinct from EU, but
  complementary

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Three Types - Three Challenges

• Dominant Nationhood (civic nationalism)
• Ethnic minorities or Immigrant Minorities
• Dominant ethnicity (ethnic nationalism)

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Dominant Nationhood

• (civic nationalism)
• Fears loss of sovereignty,
• loss of economic policy
• Loss of political-legal efficacy and national
  democracy
• Foreign policy identity depends on the country

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France Gaullist pro-Europeanism

• Seeks to reclaim French cultural predominance of
  18th-19th c
• Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony of
  19th-20th c
• Sees Anglo-Saxon west as other
• De Gaulle positions France at the heart of a
  Europe that includes Russia and is flanked by
  Anglo-Saxon West and Chinese East
• 1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which De
  Gaulle seeks to block UK entry

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German pro-European Idealism

• Nazi period discredits nationalism
• Cosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spirit
• Desire for influence and self-respect without
  nationalism
• Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII (witness
  different attitudes toward English as language)
• More truly cosmopolitan than French
  pro-Europeanism

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Smaller Nations Benelux

• History of neutrality and fear of larger nations
• History of pooling sovereignty in alliances
• Only chance of agency is through a larger unit
• Identity is less significant in absence of larger
  blocks
• Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear linguistic or
  religious markers of nationhood unlike say
  Germany or France

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Views of Unification (1995)
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Growing Cosmopolitanism in Europe?
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Growing Cosmopolitanism in Europe
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Growing Cosmopolitanism in Europe
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Do you feel national, European or Both (2004)?
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Ethnic minorities/immigrant minorities -

• Religious beliefs may challenge Enlightenment
  beliefs
• EU identity diluted (i.e. 'from Tsar to Sultan')
• Strengthens dominant ethnicity

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Immigrant Integration

• Different paths to integration
• In UK, second generation is doing much better
  (esp. Hindu, Chinese)
• UK Intermarriage more among Afro-Caribs than
  Indo-Pakistani
• UK Holland Caribbean Christians 'Indos'
  better integrated than Muslim ethnic groups
• Evidence of racial segregation in friendships

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'Superdiversity'? Inflow by region UK 2001
Source Home Office
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Newham (London) by country of birth, 2001
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Religious Retention among Second Generation
Immigrant Stock in the UK
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Dominance Ethnic, National, or State?

• A group can be BOTH ethnic and national (ie.
  Welsh in Wales)
• A group can be ethnic, national, and possess its
  own state (ie. Japanese)
• Dominant Ethnic groups can dominant states or
  sub-state nations (ie. Ethnic Germans in Germany,
  Scots-Protestants in Scotland, Jews in Israel)

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Dominant Ethnic Group

• Ethnic Community which possesses political power
  in a given state
• 2 types
• Elite Minority (Tutsi, WASP, Gulf Arab)
• Majority Group (English in England, Japanese in
  Japan)
• Most in Europe are dominant majorities
• Omission in Current Literature

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Dominant Ethnicity

• (mainly ethnic nationalism)
• Fear of internal migration
• Possible cultural fears (language, religion)
• Ethno-national congruence
• Friction with OSCE codes, multiculturalism and EU
  human rights conventions
• Expressed as rise of the far right
  accommodation by centre-right parties

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Dominant Ethno-Nationalism

• Ethno-national congruence
• Fear of immigration
• Possible cultural fears (language, religion)
• Friction with OSCE codes, multiculturalism and EU
  human rights conventions
• Expressed as rise of the far right
  accommodation by centre-right parties

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A Rising Force?
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The Role of Education Age, Germany
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The Far Right as a Worker's Party?

• Anti-elitist, anti-political class
• Claim that elite consensus 'represses' debate on
  immigration
• In virtually no European country does main
  left-wing party retain majority support among
  white male workers

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Dominant Ethno-Nationalism Theories

• Instrumentalist - dominant ethno-nationalism is
  driven by immigrant competition with natives for
  jobs
• Ethno-symbolist - perceived violation of
  sacred, historicised ethnie-nation link is the
  key
• Constructivist (Psychological) - Rapid change
  brings disorientation and a quest for order among
  those affected by change

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Multiculturalism

• Kymlicka's Liberalism, Community and Culture
  (1989), followed by a number of works in 1990s
• Taylor's Multiculturalism and the Politics of
  Recognition (1994)
• Inspired partly by 'multicultural' movement of
  minorities for 'recognition' vis a vis majority
  culture in Canada
• Canadian multiculturalism policy dates from 1971,
  similar demands in US since late 60s

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Typology of Multiculturalism
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Cosmopolitan-multiculturalist vision

• Dominant ethnic groups lose identity and members
  become cosmopolitan individualists
• Ethnic minorities retain their identity and
  provide consumer choice and 'colour'
• Bourne, c. 1916 WASPs 'breathe a larger air',
  Jews 'stick to their faith'
• Contradiction cosmopolitanism among hosts,
  ethnicity among immigrants

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The New Cultural Cosmopolitanism

• European idea was mainly one of political unity
  rather than cultural unity
• American idea had a much earlier emphasis on
  melting (i.e. Crevecoeur's 'strange mixture of
  races', c. 1782)
• But Europe has now adopted the cultural
  cosmopolitanism once found only in America

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The EU and Cultural Cosmopolitanism

• EU approach Multiculturalism, Human Rights,
  Border Control - in tension.
• Reflects tensions between cosmopolitan and
  realpolitik/intergovernmental spheres
• Multiculturalism and human rights reflects
  cosmopolitan side

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Cosmopolitanism for Majorities

• All become consumers and world citizens
• Weak identities, apart from European project,
  lifestyle and egalitarian-liberalism
• Identity forged vs USA. Defined by liberal
  egalitarianism, i.e. 'European Dream' (Rifkin)
• Hope given by rise in university education,
  generational replacement
• Effect shown in social surveys

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The Reaction to Multiculturalism

• Dominant ethnic nationalists resist all forms of
  multiculturalism
• Surveys show that anti-immigration and anti-EU
  attitudes are linked
• Even those who are willing to accept immigrants
  are afraid of threat to secular culture, language
  and civic-national identity
• A majority of most electorates

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90s Intellectual Opposition

• Individualist Liberals (i.e. Brian Barry, Michael
  Ignatieff)
• Civic Nationalists (David Miller, David Goodhart,
  New Labour, Francis Fukuyama, etc)
• 'Civic Nationalist' Critiques
• Hinders welfare state
• Reduces civic trust and political participation
• Decline in common values and national identity
• Increased ethnic conflict
• Ethnic Nationalists threat to survival of
  dominant ethnic groups, 'reverse discrimination'

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Multiculturalism in Retreat

• Multiculturalism in retreat in the US and
  Australia in the 1990s
• Changes in France, Holland, and elsewhere in
  Europe (partly linked to challenge from far
  right) since 1990s
• Change in Britain (criticism of Parekh report
  Trevor Phillips of CRE) in 2000-2004 (linked to
  9/11)

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The Return of Assimilation

• An attempt to navigate between ethnic nationalism
  and multiculturalism
• Ethnic conflict prompts increased call for
  national unity in the face of diversity (i.e.
  Germany, Holland, UK, France)
• Hopes are for integration into nations, reducing
  inter-ethnic conflict
• Shift from multiculturalism to integration. Even
  a return of assimilation/republicanism and civic
  nationalism

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Civic or Liberal Nationalism

• From Kohn (1944) to Miller (1995) and Tamir
  (1993)
• Civic nationalism will reinforce resistance to EU
  as nations become more 'American'
• Will not assuage anxieties of dominant group
• Minorities must organically come to feel
  attachment to the nation, cannot be cajoled out
  of old identities
• Civic identities must be universal and thin,
  difficult to compete with ethnic traditions

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Dominant groups will not go away, Minorities may
not assimilate

• Dominant groups may reject newcomers entirely
• Assimilation a long-term process. European and US
  examples
• May not be fast enough to absorb immigrants or
  respond to demographic crisis
• Real key is at the level of the dominant ethnic
  group, and its ability to assimilate
• Ethnic groups should not be rigid, but retain
  their cores and engage in assimilation

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Liberal Ethnicity (Kaufmann 2000)

• Recognition of both minority and dominant ethnic
  groups
• Devolves task of assimilation to ethnic groups
• Longer-term view
• Ethnic cores remain relatively fixed, but
  boundaries can absorb newcomers
• No coercive state-nationalism from above

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A Europe of Liberal Nations

• Need to consider better guarantees of ontological
  security including limits on migration between
  member states
• EU as Europe of nations, pooling many functions
• Recognition of both dominant and minority ethnic
  groups
• May in time lead to closer political integration

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Summary

• EU as cosmopolitan movement
• Three forms of ethnic and nationalist resistance
  to EU
• Multiculturalism and 'Europe of the regions' idea
  are inspired by cosmopolitanism
• Will not succeed with electorates
• Integration, liberal ethnicity and 'Europe of the
  nations' more promising