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The prenatal period extends from conception to
birth, usually encompassing nine months of
pregnancy. A great deal of important development
occurs before birth.
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The germinal stage lasts from conception to about
2 weeks. During this stage, rapid cell division
occurs, and the mass of cells migrates to the
uterus and beings to implant into the uterine
wall, forming a placenta during the implantation
process.
The embryonic stage lasts from 2 weeks to 2
months and is the period when most of the vital
organs and bodily systems such as the heart,
spine, and brain emerge. The embryonic period is
a time of great vulnerability if anything
interferes with development during this time
period, effects can be devastating.
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The fetal period lasts from 2 months to birth.
During the early parts of this stage, the muscles
and bones begin to form. The body continues to
grow and function, with sex organs developing in
the 3rd month and brain cells multiplying during
the final 3 months. Somewhere between 22 and 26
weeks, the age of viability is reached when the
baby could survive if born prematurely. At 22 or
23 weeks, chances for survival are slim, but by
26-28 weeks chances improve to a survival rate of
about 85.
A developing baby and its mother are linked
through the placenta, and a mothers behaviors
can affect the baby dramatically. Severe
maternal malnutrition is linked to increased risk
of birth complications and neurological problems
in the newborn. Research links maternal
malnutrition to vulnerability, schizophrenia, and
other psychiatric disorders in adolescence and
early adulthood.
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Maternal drug use can significantly impact a
developing baby, even if the drugs are legal,
like alcohol and cigarettes. Many drugs, both
prescription and recreational, are linked to
birth defects. Problems can even be caused by
some over the counter drugs. Fetal alcohol
syndrome, one of the leading causes of mental
retardation, is a collection of congenital
(inborn) problems associated with excessive
alcohol use during pregnancy. Current studies
suggest that even normal social drinking can have
enduring negative effects on children, including
deficits in IQ, reaction time, motor skills,
attention span, and math skills, as well as
impulsive, antisocial, and delinquent behavior.
Motor development refers to the progression of
muscular coordination required for physical
activities. A basic number of principles are
apparent in motor development. The cephalocaudal
trend describes the fact that children tend to
gain control over the upper part of their bodies
before the lower part. The proximodistal trend
describes the fact that children gain control
over their torsos before their
extremities. Motor development depends in part
on physical growth, as well as on the process of
maturation (the gradual unfolding of ones
genetic blueprint), and the infants ongoing
exploration of the world.
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Attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds
of affection that develop between infants and
their caregivers. Separation anxiety is
emotional distress seen in many infants when they
are separated from people with whom they have
formed an attachment.
Harry Harlow conducted a now-famous study in
which he removed monkeys from their mothers at
birth and raised them in a laboratory with two
different kinds of substitute mothers a cloth
mother and a wire mother. Half the monkeys were
fed from a bottle attached to the cloth mother,
and half were fed by the wire mother. Harlow
discovered that when frightened, the monkeys
regardless of which mother fed them sought
comfort from the cloth mother, suggesting that
attachment.
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Harlow's work seriously undermined the behavioral
view of the basis for attachment. An alternative
explanation of attachment was soon proposed by
John Bowlby, a prominent British psychoanalyst.
Citing Harlows findings and Konrad Lorenzs
research on imprinting, Bowlby asserted that
attachment has a biological basis. According to
Bowlby, infants are programmed by evolution to
exhibit endearing behavior such as smiling,
cooing, and clinging that triggers an
affectionate, protective response from adults.
One of Bowlbys colleagues, Mary Ainsworth,
eventually showed that attachments vary in
character. Ainsworth developed a method called
the strange situation procedure to assess the
quality of attachment between 1-2-year-old
infants and their caregivers. The strange
situation procedure puts infants through a
series of short separations from and reunions
with their caregivers. As a result, Ainsworth
concluded that attachment falls into three
patterns secure, anxious-ambivalent, and
avoidant.
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Ainsworth found that most infants have a secure
attachment, playing and exploring comfortably
when mom is present, becoming visibly upset when
she leaves, and calming quickly upon her
return. Some babies, however, show anxiety even
when mom is near and protest excessively when she
leaves, but are not particularly comforted when
she returns (anxious-ambivalent attachment).
Finally, some babies sought little contact with
their mothers and were not distressed when she
left, a pattern Ainsworth labeled avoidant
attachment. Correlational evidence suggests that
babies with secure attachment tend to show
favorable traits as they develop through
childhood, such as resilience, self-reliance,
curiosity, and leadership. Secure attachment
appears to be the most common type of attachment
around the world, though variations in patterns
exist.
At around 10 to 13 months of age, most children
begin to make sounds that correspond to words,
after which their vocabulary grows slowly over
the next few months. Fast mapping is the process
by which children map a word onto an underlying
structure after only one exposure contributing
to the rapid growth in vocabulary around 18
months.
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Children begin to combine words into sentences
near the end of their second year. Telegraphic
speech consists mainly of content words
articles, prepositions, and other less critical
words are omitted. By the end of their third
year, most children can express complex ideas
such as the plural or the past tense, although
still with mistakes, such as overregularization
when grammatical rules are generalized to
irregular cases where they do not apply.
Erik Erikson, in the 1960s, proposed a stage
theory of personality development based on
stages. Stage theories assume that individuals
must progress through specified stages in a
particular order because each stage builds on the
previous one. They also assume that progress
through the stages is strongly related to age,
and that development is marked by major
discontinuities that bring about dramatic changes
in behavior. Erikson theorized that there are
eight stages, spanning the lifespan, in
personality development. He held that there is a
specific psychosocial crisis during each stage,
the outcome of which determines the balance
between opposing polarities in personality.
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In stage 1, trust vs. mistrust, the infant in its
first year of life must depend solely on its
caregiver, which should lead to a trusting view
of the world. click to view next stage In
stage 2, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, the child
begins to take personality responsibility and
should acquire a sense of self sufficiency. click
to view next stage In stage 3, initiative vs.
guilt, children should learn to get along with
family members, leading to self
confidence. click to view next stage In stage
4, industry vs. inferiority, children must
function socially outside of the bounds of their
family, from which a sense of competence should
evolve.
Jean Piaget made a landmark contribution to
psychologys understanding of cognitive
development, asserting that interaction with the
environment and maturation gradually alter the
way children think. This progression in thinking
occurs through the complementary processes of
assimilation (interpreting new experiences in
terms of existing mental structures without
changing them) and accommodation (changing
existing mental structures to explain new
experiences). Piaget proposed that childrens
thought processes go through a series of four
major stages.
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In the sensorimotor stage, a child progressively
develops object permanence, or the recognition
that objects continue to exist even when they are
no longer visible. click to view next stage In
the preoperational stage, children engage in
symbolic thought, with characteristic flaws in
their reasoning such as centration, the tendency
to focus on just one feature of a problem, and
egocentrism, the limited ability to share
anothers viewpoint. This results in animism, the
belief that all things are living, just like
oneself. click to view next stage The concrete
operational stage is characterized by the ability
to perform operations with symbolic thought such
as reversing or mentally undoing an action.
Children in the concrete operational stage are
able to focus on more than one feature of a
problem simultaneously, a process called
decentration. These new cognitive skills lead to
conservation, or recognizing that amount of a
substance does not change just because appearance
is changed. click to view next stage The
formal operational period is marked by the
ability to apply operations to abstract concepts
such as justice, love, and free will.
This video shows children at Piagets
sensorimotor stage.
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This video shows children at Piagets concrete
operational stage.
Lawrence Kohlberg devised a stage theory of moral
development based on subjects responses to
presented moral dilemmas. Kohlberg was
interested in a persons reasoning, not
necessarily their answer. He theorized that
people progress through a series of three levels
of moral development, each of which can be broken
into 2 sublevels. Each stage represents a
different way of thinking about right and wrong.
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Younger children at the preconventional level
think in terms of external authority acts are
considered wrong or right based on whether or not
they are punished for them. Older children who
have reached the conventional level of moral
reasoning see rules as necessary for maintaining
social order. Adolescence represents the move to
the postconventional level of moral reasoning,
where acts are individually judged by a personal
code of ethics.
This video explains moral development, and shows
childrens responses to moral dilemmas.
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Pubescence is the term used to describe the
two-year span preceding puberty during which the
changes leading to physical and sexual maturity
take place. During this period, children grow
taller and heavier and develop secondary sex
characteristics, physical features that
distinguish one sex from the other but that are
not essential for reproduction.
Puberty is the stage during which sexual
functions reach maturity, marking the beginning
of adolescence. It is during puberty that the
primary sex characteristics, the structures
necessary for reproduction, develop fully. In
females, the onset of puberty is signaled by
menarche the fist occurrence of menstruation.
In males, it is signaled by sperm production. At
this time, males begin to show acne, facial and
body hair, voice change, muscle development, and
ability to ejaculate. Females also develop acne,
as well as body hair, breast development, rounded
contours, enlargement of the uterus, clitoris,
and labia, as well as menstruation.
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In recent years, the increasing availability of
MRI scans has allowed researchers to study the
developing adolescent brain. The white matter
increases, reflecting increasing
myelinization. At the same time, there is
evidence of increased synaptic pruning. These
changes are thought to reflect maturation in the
prefrontal cortex. It appears that the
prefrontal cortex is the last area of the brain
to mature fully. Some researchers have
suggested that this is connected with the
increase in risky behaviors during adolescence.
According to Erikson, the key challenge of
adolescence is to form a clear sense of identity.
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James Marcia asserts that the presence or absence
of crisis and commitment during the identity
formation stage can combine in various ways to
produce four different identity
statuses. Foreclosure is a premature commitment
to a role prescribed by ones parents. A
moratorium involves delaying commitment and
engaging in experimentation with different
roles. Identity diffusion is a state of lack of
direction and apathy, where a person does not
confront the challenge and commit to an
ideology. Identity achievement involves arriving
at a sense of self and direction after some
consideration of alternative possibilities.
According to Erikson, adulthood involves three
stages Intimacy vs. isolation is the concern
with the ability to share intimacy with others,
and should lead to empathy and openness. Generati
vity vs. self-absorption involves concern for
future generations, resulting in unselfish
guidance to younger people. Integrity vs.
despair involves overcoming the tendency to dwell
on mistakes of the past, as well as the imminent
presence of death.
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Many landmarks in adult development involve
transitions in family relationships marriage,
parenthood, parent adolescent relations, and the
empty nest syndrome. Young adults are becoming
increasingly postponing marriage, which may be a
reflection on career opportunities for women,
increased educational requirements for work, and
increased emphasis on personal autonomy. Studies
of marriage and marital satisfaction indicate
that when spouses have differing role
expectations, adjustment to marriage is more
difficult. Research also shows highest rates of
marital satisfaction at the beginning and end of
the family cycle. Research shows that adjustment
to parenthood proceeds more smoothly if
unrealistic expectations are not held.
In this video, couples express their reasons for
remaining child-free.
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Age related physical changes include changes in
appearance, neuron loss, sensory loss, and
hormonal changes. Research indicates that
menopause is not as problematic as once
thought. Cognitive functioning research
indicates that general mental ability remains
fairly stable, with small declines in IQ after
age 60. Fluid intelligence is more likely to
decline with age, while crystallized intelligence
remains stable or increases. Mental speed
declines in late adulthood, and memory losses
have been reported in many studies. These are
moderate and variable. This video shows
declining mental acuity in aging adults, as well
as measures taken to prevent the decline.
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