Chapter Eleven

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• Chapter Eleven
• Linguistics and Language Teaching

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Contents

• The relation between Linguistics and
• Language Teaching

Linguistics and language Learning
Linguistics and language Teaching
Syllabus Design
Error Analysis
Corpus
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• 1. The relation between Linguistics and
• Language Teaching
• Applied linguistics
• Theoretical views of language explicitly or
  implicitly inform the approaches and methods
  adopted in language teaching.
• Linguistics, as the science of language, should
  be of fundamental importance for teachers of
  language.

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Relation

• Firstly, language teaching is part of applied
  linguistics and applied linguistics is part of
  linguistics
• Secondly, and more importantly, many readers of
  this book are or will be language
• teachers.

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• According to Jo McDonough, a teacher who is able
  to explain some linguistic features would have a
  stronger position than one who handles the
  argument by using authority its like that,
  its an exception, or its less formal.

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2. Linguistics and language learning

• Many language learning theories are proposed
  based on certain linguistic theories.
• In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the
  root of understanding what language learners can
  learn, how they actually learn and what they
  learn ultimately.

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• As Rod Ellis points out, whereas much of the
  earlier work focused on the linguistic and, in
  particular, the grammatical-properties of learner
  language and was psycholinguistic in orientation,
  later work has also attended to the pragmatic
  aspects of learner language and, increasingly,
  has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective.

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• Although certain language learners (e.g.,
  advanced learners and students majoring a foreign
  language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of
  linguistics, it is not sensible to recommend the
  majority of language learners to study
  linguistics while they are still struggling with
  the task of learning the language itself.

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2.1 Grammar

• Do we teach grammar?
• How do we teach grammar?

• As a compromise between the purely form-focused
  approaches and the purely meaning-focused
  approaches, a recent movement called focus on
  form seems to take a more balanced view on the
  role of grammar in language learning.

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Focus on Form

• Although language learning should generally be
  meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is
  still necessary and beneficial to focus on form
  occasionally.

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• Focus on form often consists of an occasional
  shift of attention to linguistic code featuresby
  the teacher and/or one or more studentstriggered
  by perceived problems with comprehension or
  production.

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Universal Grammar

• Two variables concerning the amenability of
  language elements to focus on form are the
  relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the
  complexity of language structures.
• According to the advocates of focus on form, if
  an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is
  high otherwise, the amenability is low.

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• The problem is that no one knows for sure what
  exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study
  of linguistics comes into play.
• The study of UG, which is often considered as the
  theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in
  language learning research in the most practical
  sense.

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• The study of UG has attracted considerable
  attention from many second language acquisition
  researchers because knowledge of linguistic
  universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a
  number of ways.
• For example, it can provide explanations for
  developmental sequences and language transfer.

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Structural complexity

• It can be assumed that less complex structures
  have higher amenability, but complexity is hard
  to define.
• Formally simple structures can be functionally
  complex and formally complex items are not
  necessarily functionally complex.
• Again we resort to linguistics in order to have a
  better understanding of the complexity of
  language structures.

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Grammar-based teaching

• Grammar-translation method
• Audiolingual method
• Situational language teaching

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2.2 Input

• Language learning can take place when the learner
  has enough access to input in the target
  language.
• This input may come in written or spoken form.
• In the case of spoken input, it may occur in the
  context of interaction or in the context of
  non-reciprocal discourse .

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• Views diverge greatly as to what kind of input
  should be provided for language learners.
• Authentic input
• Comprehensible input (Krashen) i1
• Premodified input
• Interactively modified input tends to do a
  better job

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Input-based teaching

• Direct method
• Natural approach
• Total physical response
• Communicative approach
• Community language learning (CLL)
• Suggestopedia
• Silent way

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Suggestopedia Learn While You Sleep!

• The Bulgarian physician Georgi Lozanov devised a
  language learning method called Suggestopedia.

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Caleb Gattegnos Silent Way
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• This is a chart containing a certain number of
  different coloured rectangles each colour
  corresponds to a sound in the language.

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• The Fidel is a set of charts presenting all the
  possible spellings of each sound of the language.

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• One of the 12 word charts on which the functional
  words of the language are printed in color.

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2.3 Interlanguageoutput

• The type of language constructed by second or
  foreign language learners who are still in the
  process of learning a language is often referred
  to as interlanguage.
• It is often understood as a language system
  between the target language and the learners
  native language.

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• Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which
  is constantly moving from the departure level to
  the native-like level.
• Can be done in two ways
• investigating the psychological, biological or
  neurological mechanisms involved in the
  production of interlanguage
• investigating the linguistic features of
  interlanguage.

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• Concerning the linguistic features of
  interlanguage, the following questions can be
  asked
• Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general
  different from the target language or the native
  language?
• In what way is lower level interlanguage
  different from higher level interlanguage?
• How is the interlanguage system used to convey
  meaning?

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Constructivism

• Language (or any knowledge) is socially
  constructed.
• Learners learn language by cooperating,
  negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks.
• In other words, they construct language in
  certain social and cultural contexts.

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3. Linguistics and Language Teaching

• Linguistics theories influence our general
  orientation in approaches to language teaching
• Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to better
  explain the specific language items they teach.

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3.1 Discourse-based view

• Linguistic patterns exist across stretches of
  text.
• These patterns of language extend beyond the
  words, clauses and sentences, which have been the
  traditional concern of much language teaching.
• Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and
  on the social and cultural contexts in which such
  language operates.
• Accordingly, it aims at developing discourse
  competence, similar to the well-known concept of
  communicative competence.

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Communicative competence

• Dell Hymes
• What a learners knows about how a language is
  used in particular situations for effective and
  appropriate communication.
• Includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary,
  knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how
  to use and respond to different types of speech
  acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how
  to use language appropriately.

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• It is believed that language learning will
  successfully take place when language learners
  know how and when to use the language in various
  settings and when they have successfully cognized
  various forms of competence such as grammatical
  competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and
  phonology) and pragmatic competence (e.g., speech
  acts).

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• In the case of foreign/second language learning,
  language learners are encouraged to deal with
  accomplishing actions, which are thought to help
  them acquire the target language.
• Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and
  Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) are the best
  known examples of such a theory.
• In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are
  expected to learn by performing tasks.

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Task-based

• Two broad types of tasks real-world tasks and
  pedagogical tasks.
• A real-world task is very close to something we
  do in daily life or work.
• Pedagogical tasks are those activities that
  students do in the classroom but that may not
  take place in real life. (information gap)

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Drawbacks

• Overemphasizes the role of external factors in
  the process of language acquisition and gives
  little importance to internal learning processes.
  
• Similar to the behavioristic view of language
  acquisition in that environmental factors and
  input are at the very center in attempting to
  explicate the acquisition process.
• Overstresses the role of knowledge of competence
  and functions in acquiring a language, and hence
  fails to notice universal principles that guide
  language acquisition.

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3.2 Universal Grammar (UG)

• Noam Chomsky
• A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic
  competence.
• The child is born with knowledge of some
  linguistic universals.
• While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares
  his innate language system with that of his
  native language and modifies his grammar.

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• Input is poor and deficient in two ways.
• It is degenerate because it is damaged by
  performance features such as slips, hesitations
  or false starts. Accordingly, the input is not an
  adequate base for language learning.
• It is devoid of grammar corrections. It does not
  normally contain negative evidence, the
  knowledge from which the learner could exercise
  what is not possible in a given language.

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Although UG was not originally proposed to
account for second language acquisition, many
researchers are working on its implication for
language learning and teaching.

• Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for
  second language acquisition based on Chomskys
  linguistic theory.

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Drawbacks

• UGs primary aim is to account for how language
  works, not acquisition.
• UG is only concerned with the core grammar of
  language (syntax).
• The communication function is discarded in UG.
• Chomsky is concerned only with competence,
  there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers
  carrying out empirical research.

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4. Syllabus Design

• A bridge between language teaching theory and
  language teaching practice.
• Translates theoretical understanding of language
  teaching and sets up an operable framework for
  language teaching.
• The most important part of syllabus design is
  selecting and sequencing language items.

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4.1 Types of syllabus

• Structural
• Situational
• Functional/notional
• Communicative
• Task-based
• Content-based

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4.2 Components of a syllabus

• Aims/goals
• Objectives/targets/requirements
• Non-language outcomes affect cultivation
  (confidence, motivation, interest, etc.)
• Learning strategies, thinking skills,
  interpersonal skills, etc.
• Implementation approaches, methods, principles,
  suggestions, textbooks, etc.
• Assessment/evaluation

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4.3 Current trends

• Co-existence of the old and the new
• Emphasis on the learning process
• Inclusion of non-linguistic objectives
• Emergence of the multi-syllabus

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4. Contrastive Analysis

• A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine
  potential errors for the purpose of isolating
  what needs to be learned and what not.
• Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy to
  learn and what will be difficult.
• Associated in its early days with behaviorism and
  structuralism.

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4.1 Main assumptions

• Language is a habit and LL involves establishment
  of a new set of habits.
• L1 interferes with L2.
• Errors in L2 can be accounted for by differences
  between L1 and L2.
• Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so similarities
  can be ignored.
• Therefore,
• Need for careful analysis of similarities and
  differences between L1 and L2.
• Teachers should focus on areas of negative
  transfer.

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4.2 Drawbacks

• Overemphasis on linguistic contrasts but lack of
  psychological considerations.
• Cannot predict all errors while some predicted
  errors do not occur.

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5. Error Analysis

• S. Pit Corder
• Many errors made by L2 learners were caused by
  factors other than L1 interference.
• Errors are not just to be seen as something to be
  eradicated.

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5.1 Error and mistake

• Error learners lack of knowledge/ competence
• Mistake learners failure to perform their
  competence

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5.2 Interlingual vs. intralingual

• Interlingual errors (transfer errors) misuse of
  an item because of L1 influence.
• Intralingual errors (developmental errors)
  within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization)

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5.3 Procedure of error analysis

• Recognition
• Description
• Explanation

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5.4 Problems

• Rely on errors to study how L2 is learned
  inadequate.
• Difficult to determine what an error is
• There are so many people live around here.
• Over-stresses production error but fails to
  account for error avoidance learner avoids a
  certain word or structure.

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6. Corpus

• Language corpora make it possible for materials
  developers to select authentic, natural and
  typical language.
• The two most important factors in a corpus are
  the size and types of texts selected.
• Usually the uses that will be made of the corpus
  decide the number and type of texts in a corpus.

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6.1 Types

• General
• Specialized
• Sample
• Monitor

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6.2 Uses

• Frequency
• Context and co-text
• Grammatical
• Collocation and phraseology
• Pragmatics

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