ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

1
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

• TR2023
• ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY
• FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT OF TECHNOLOGY
• UNIVERSITI UTARA MALAYSIA

2
Objectives

• To introduce common electronic components used in
  industries
• To distinguish the characteristic differences
  among components

3
Contents

1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Diodes
4. Transistors
5. Integrated Circuits (ICs)
6. Rectifiers
7. Electronic Symbols

4
1. RESISTORS
Resistors
Chapter 2

• Most common component in electronic circuits.
• Main function to limit current flow or reduce
  the voltage in a circuit.
• Fixed or variable.
• Basic unit is ohm.
• Symbol is O.

5
Type of Fixed Resistors
Chapter 2
Resistors

1. Wire-Wound Resistors
2. Carbon-Composition Resistors
3. Film-Type Resistors
4. Surface-Mount Resistors
5. Fusible Resistors
6. Thermistors

6
Types of Fixed Resistors
Chapter 2
Resistors
Film-Type Resistors
Wire-Wound Resistors
Thermistor
Carbon-Composition Resistor
Surface-Mount Resistors
7
Resistors Color Coding
Resistors
Chapter 2
Digit Color
0 Black
1 Brown
2 Red
3 Orange
4 Yellow
5 Green
6 Blue
7 Violet
8 Grey
9 White
Tolerance Color
5 Gold
10 Silver
20 No color band
8
Resistors Color Coding (contd)
Chapter 2
Resistors
9
Type of Variable Resistors
Resistors
Chapter 2

1. Tapered Controls
2. Decade Resistance Box
3. Rheostats
4. Potentiometers

10
Symbols
Chapter 2
Resistors
11
In Series
Chapter 2
Resistors
12
In Parallel
Chapter 2
Resistors
13
Voltage Divider
Chapter 2
Resistors
14
Power Rating of Resistors
Chapter 2
Resistors

• The power rating of a resistor is a physical
  property that depends on the resistor
  construction, especially physical size.
• Larger physical size indicates a higher power
  rating.
• Higher-wattage resistors can operate at higher
  temperatures.
• Wire-wound resistors are physically larger with
  higher wattage ratings than carbon resistors.

15
2. CAPACITORS
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• Capacitors is a component that is able to hold or
  store an electric charge.
• Its physical construction consists of two metal
  plates separated by an insulator.
• Capacitors are used to block direct current (DC)
  but pass alternating current (AC).
• Basic unit is farad.
• Symbol is F.

16
Operational Principle
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals.
• Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to
  two metal plates separated by a dielectric.
• The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or
  anything else that does not conduct electricity
  and keeps the plates from touching each other.
• You can easily make a capacitor from two pieces
  of aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It won't
  be a particularly good capacitor in terms of its
  storage capacity, but it will work.

17
Operational Principle (contd)
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• When you connect a capacitor to a battery, heres
  what happens
• The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the
  negative terminal of the battery accepts
  electrons that the battery is producing.
• The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the
  positive terminal of the battery loses electrons
  to the battery.

18
Operational Principle (contd)
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• Once it's charged, the capacitor has the same
  voltage as the battery (1.5 volts on the battery
  means 1.5 volts on the capacitor).
• For a small capacitor, the capacity is small. But
  large capacitors can hold quite a bit of charge.
• You can find capacitors as big as soda cans, for
  example, that hold enough charge to light a
  flashlight bulb for a minute or more.
• When you see lightning in the sky, what you are
  seeing is a huge capacitor where one plate is the
  cloud and the other plate is the ground, and the
  lightning is the charge releasing between these
  two plates.
• Obviously, in a capacitor that large, you can
  hold a huge amount of charge!

19
Typical Capacitors
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• Commercial capacitors are generally classified
  according to the dielectric mica, paper,
  plastic film, and ceramic, plus the electrolytic
  type.
• Except for electrolytic capacitors, capacitors
  can be connected to a circuit without regard to
  polarity, since either side can be more positive
  plate.

20
Types of Capacitors
Capacitors
Capacitors
Chapter 17

1. Mica Capacitors
2. Paper Capacitors
3. Film Capacitors
4. Ceramic Capacitors
5. Surface-Mount Capacitors
6. Variable Capacitors

21
Symbols
Capacitors
Chapter 17
22
In Parallel
CT C1 C2 . CN
23
In Series
24
Capacitance Units
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• The unit of capacitance is a farad.
• A 1-farad capacitor can store one coulomb
  (coo-lomb) of charge at 1 volt. A coulomb is
  6.25e18 (6.25 x 1018, or 6.25 billion billion)
  electrons.
• One amp represents a rate of electron flow of 1
  coulomb of electrons per second, so a 1-farad
  capacitor can hold 1 amp-second of electrons at 1
  volt.
• A 1-farad capacitor would typically be pretty
  big. It might be as big as a can of tuna or a
  1-liter soda bottle, depending on the voltage it
  can handle.
• So you typically see capacitors measured in
  microfarads (millionths of a farad).

25
Capacitance Units (Contd)
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• To get some perspective on how big a farad is,
  think about this
• A typical alkaline AA battery holds about 2.8
  amp-hours.
• That means that a AA battery can produce 2.8 amps
  for an hour at 1.5 volts (about 4.2 watt-hours --
  a AA battery can light a 4-watt bulb for a little
  more than an hour).
• Let's call it 1 volt to make the math easier. To
  store one AA battery's energy in a capacitor, you
  would need
• 3,600 x 2.8 10,080 farads to hold it, because
  an amp-hour is 3,600 amp-seconds.

26
Temperature Coefficient
Capacitors
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• Ceramic capacitors are often used for temperature
  compensation, to increase or decrease capacitance
  with a rise in temperature.
• The temperature coefficient is given in parts per
  million (ppm) per degree Celsius, with a
  reference of 25oC.
• Negative coefficient is labeled with preceding
  letter N. e.g. N750 means negative 750-ppm.
• Positive coefficient is labeled with preceding
  letter P. e.g. P750 means positive 750-ppm.
• Units that do not change in capacitance are
  labeled NPO.

27
Capacitors Tolerance
Capacitors
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• Ceramic disk capacitors for general applications
  usually have a tolerance of 20.
• For closer tolerances, mica or film capacitors
  are used values of 2 20.
• Silver-plated mica capacitors are available with
  a tolerance of 1.

28
Voltage Rating
Capacitors
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• It specifies the maximum potential difference
  that can be applied across the plates without
  puncturing the dielectric.
• Usually the voltage rating is for temperature up
  to about 60oC.
• Higher temperatures result in a lower voltage
  rating.
• Voltage rating for general-purpose paper, mica,
  and ceramic capacitors are typically 200 to 500
  V. Ceramic capacitors with ratings of 1 to 20 kV
  are also available.

29
Capacitor Applications
Capacitors
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• In most electronic circuits, a capacitor has DC
  voltage applied, combined with a much smaller AC
  signal voltage.
• The usual function of the capacitor is to block
  the DC voltage but pass the AC signal voltage, by
  means of the charge and discharge current.
• These applications include coupling, bypassing,
  and filtering for AC signals.

30
Capacitor Applications (contd)
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• The difference between a capacitor and a battery
  is that a capacitor can dump its entire charge in
  a tiny fraction of a second, where a battery
  would take minutes to completely discharge
  itself.
• That's why the electronic flash on a camera uses
  a capacitor -- the battery charges up the flash's
  capacitor over several seconds, and then the
  capacitor dumps the full charge into the flash
  tube almost instantly.
• This can make a large, charged capacitor
  extremely dangerous -- flash units and TVs have
  warnings about opening them up for this reason.
  They contain big capacitors that can,
  potentially, kill you with the charge they
  contain.

31
Capacitor Applications (contd)
Capacitors
Chapter 17

• Capacitors are used in several different ways in
  electronic circuits
• Sometimes, capacitors are used to store charge
  for high-speed use. That's what a flash does. Big
  lasers use this technique as well to get very
  bright, instantaneous flashes.
• Capacitors can also eliminate ripples. If a line
  carrying DC voltage has ripples or spikes in it,
  a big capacitor can even out the voltage by
  absorbing the peaks and filling in the valleys.
• A capacitor can block DC voltage. If you hook a
  small capacitor to a battery, then no current
  will flow between the poles of the battery once
  the capacitor charges (which is instantaneous if
  the capacitor is small). However, any alternating
  current (AC) signal flows through a capacitor
  unimpeded. That's because the capacitor will
  charge and discharge as the alternating current
  fluctuates, making it appear that the alternating
  current is flowing.

32
3. DIODES
Diode
Chapter 28

• Diode is an electronic component that allows
  current to flow through it in one direction but
  not the other.
• Its main function is to change an AC voltage into
  a DC voltage.
• There are two leads coming out from a diode
  cathode and anode.

33
Light Emitting Diodes
Diode
Chapter 28

• Light emitting diodes, commonly called LEDs, are
  real unsung heroes in the electronics world.
• They do dozens of different jobs and are found in
  all kinds of devices.
• Among other things, they form the numbers on
  digital clocks, transmit information from remote
  controls, light up watches and tell you when your
  appliances are turned on.
• Collected together, they can form images on a
  jumbo television screen or illuminate a traffic
  light.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
34
Light Emitting Diodes (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28

• Basically, LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that
  fit easily into an electrical circuit.
• But unlike ordinary incandescent bulbs, they
  don't have a filament that will burn out, and
  they don't get especially hot.
• They are illuminated solely by the movement of
  electrons in a semiconductor material, and they
  last just as long as a standard transistor.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
35
Diode Principle
Diode
Chapter 28

• A diode is the simplest sort of semiconductor
  device.
• Broadly speaking, a semiconductor is a material
  with a varying ability to conduct electrical
  current.
• Most semiconductors are made of a poor conductor
  that has had impurities (atoms of another
  material) added to it.
• The process of adding impurities is called
  doping.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
36
Diode Principle (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28

• In the case of LEDs, the conductor material is
  typically aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs).
• In pure aluminum-gallium-arsenide, all of the
  atoms bond perfectly to their neighbors, leaving
  no free electrons (negatively-charged particles)
  to conduct electric current.
• In doped material, additional atoms change the
  balance, either adding free electrons or creating
  holes where electrons can go.
• Either of these additions make the material more
  conductive.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
37
Diode Principle (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28

• A semiconductor with extra electrons is called
  N-type material, since it has extra
  negatively-charged particles.
• In N-type material, free electrons move from a
  negatively-charged area to a positively charged
  area.
• A semiconductor with extra holes is called P-type
  material, since it effectively has extra
  positively-charged particles.
• Electrons can jump from hole to hole, moving from
  a negatively-charged area to a positively-charged
  area.
• As a result, the holes themselves appear to move
  from a positively-charged area to a
  negatively-charged area.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
38
Diode Principle (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28

• A diode comprises a section of N-type material
  bonded to a section of P-type material, with
  electrodes on each end.
• This arrangement conducts electricity in only one
  direction.
• When no voltage is applied to the diode,
  electrons from the N-type material fill holes
  from the P-type material along the junction
  between the layers, forming a depletion zone.
• In a depletion zone, the semiconductor material
  is returned to its original insulating state --
  all of the holes are filled, so there are no free
  electrons or empty spaces for electrons, and
  charge can't flow.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
39
Diode Principle (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28

• To get rid of the depletion zone, you have to get
  electrons moving from the N-type area to the
  P-type area and holes moving in the reverse
  direction.
• To do this, you connect the N-type side of the
  diode to the negative end of a circuit and the
  P-type side to the positive end.
• The free electrons in the N-type material are
  repelled by the negative electrode and drawn to
  the positive electrode.
• The holes in the P-type material move the other
  way.
• When the voltage difference between the
  electrodes is high enough, the electrons in the
  depletion zone are boosted out of their holes and
  begin moving freely again.
• The depletion zone disappears, and charge moves
  across the diode.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
40
Diode Principle (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28

• If you try to run current the other way, with the
  P-type side connected to the negative end of the
  circuit and the N-type side connected to the
  positive end, current will not flow.
• The negative electrons in the N-type material are
  attracted to the positive electrode.
• The positive holes in the P-type material are
  attracted to the negative electrode.
• No current flows across the junction because the
  holes and the electrons are each moving in the
  wrong direction. The depletion zone increases.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
41
Light from LEDs
Diode
Chapter 28

• Light is a form of energy that can be released by
  an atom.
• It is made up of many small particle-like packets
  that have energy and momentum but no mass.
• These particles, called photons, are the most
  basic units of light.
• Photons are released as a result of moving
  electrons.
• In an atom, electrons move in orbitals around the
  nucleus.
• Electrons in different orbitals have different
  amounts of energy.
• Generally speaking, electrons with greater energy
  move in orbitals farther away from the nucleus.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
42
Light from LEDs (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28

• As we saw in the last section, free electrons
  moving across a diode can fall into empty holes
  from the P-type layer.
• This involves a drop from the conduction band to
  a lower orbital, so the electrons release energy
  in the form of photons.
• This happens in any diode, but you can only see
  the photons when the diode is composed of certain
  material.
• The atoms in a standard silicon diode, for
  example, are arranged in such a way that the
  electron drops a relatively short distance.
• As a result, the photon's frequency is so low
  that it is invisible to the human eye -- it is in
  the infrared portion of the light spectrum. This
  isn't necessarily a bad thing, of course
  Infrared LEDs are ideal for remote controls,
  among other things.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
43
Light from LEDs (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28
http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
44
Light from LEDs (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28
http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
45
Light from LEDs (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28
http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
46
Light from LEDs (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28

• Visible light-emitting diodes (VLEDs), such as
  the ones that light up numbers in a digital
  clock, are made of materials characterized by a
  wider gap between the conduction band and the
  lower orbitals.
• The size of the gap determines the frequency of
  the photon -- in other words, it determines the
  color of the light.
• While all diodes release light, most don't do it
  very effectively.
• In an ordinary diode, the semiconductor material
  itself ends up absorbing a lot of the light
  energy.
• LEDs are specially constructed to release a large
  number of photons outward.
• Additionally, they are housed in a plastic bulb
  that concentrates the light in a particular
  direction.
• As you can see in the diagram, most of the light
  from the diode bounces off the sides of the bulb,
  traveling on through the rounded end.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
47
Light from LEDs (contd)
Diode
Chapter 28

• LEDs have several advantages over conventional
  incandescent lamps.
• For one thing, they don't have a filament that
  will burn out, so they last much longer.
• Additionally, their small plastic bulb makes them
  a lot more durable.
• They also fit more easily into modern electronic
  circuits.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
48
Advantage of LEDs
Diode
Chapter 28

• But the main advantage is efficiency. In
  conventional incandescent bulbs, the
  light-production process involves generating a
  lot of heat (the filament must be warmed).
• This is completely wasted energy, unless you're
  using the lamp as a heater, because a huge
  portion of the available electricity isn't going
  toward producing visible light.
• LEDs generate very little heat, relatively
  speaking.
• A much higher percentage of the electrical power
  is going directly to generating light, which cuts
  down on the electricity demands considerably.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
49
LEDs Applications
Diode
Chapter 28

• Up until recently, LEDs were too expensive to use
  for most lighting applications because they're
  built around advanced semiconductor material.
• The price of semiconductor devices has plummeted
  over the past decade, however, making LEDs a more
  cost-effective lighting option for a wide range
  of situations.
• While they may be more expensive than
  incandescent lights up front, their lower cost in
  the long run can make them a better buy.
• In the future, they will play an even bigger role
  in the world of technology.

http//electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
50
4. TRANSISTORS
Transistors
Chapter 30

• A transistor is an electronic component that can
  be used to amplify small AC signals or switch a
  DC voltage.

51
Types of Transistors
Transistors
Chapter 30

1. Bipolar Junction Transistors
2. Common Emitter Amplifier
3. Common Collector Amplifier
4. Common Base Amplifier
5. Field-Effect Transistors (FET)
6. Insulated-Gate FET
7. Junction FET (JFET)
8. JFET Common Source Amplifier
9. JFET Common Drain Amplifier
10. Metal-Oxide Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFET)

52
Transistors Introduction (Intel)
Transistors
Chapter 30

• Microprocessors are essential to many of the
  products we use every day such as televisions,
  cars, radios, home appliances, and, of course,
  computers.
• Transistors are the main components of
  microprocessors.
• At their most basic level, transistors may seem
  simple.
• But their development actually required many
  years of painstaking research.
• Before transistors, computers relied on slow,
  inefficient vacuum tubes and mechanical switches
  to process information. In 1958, engineers (one
  of them Intel co-founder Robert Noyce) managed to
  put two transistors onto a silicon crystal and
  create the first integrated circuit, which led to
  the microprocessor.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
53
How Transistors Work
Transistors
Chapter 30

• Transistors are miniature electronic switches.
  They are the building blocks of the
  microprocessor which is the brain of the
  computer.
• Similar to a basic light switch, transistors have
  two operating positions, on and off. This on/off,
  or binary, functionality of transistors enables
  the processing of information in a computer.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
54
Simple Electric Switch
Transistors
Chapter 30

• How a Simple Electric Switch Works
• The only information computers understand are
  electrical signals that are switched on and off.
• To comprehend transistors, it is necessary to
  have an understanding of how a switched
  electronic circuit works.
• Switched electronic circuits consist of several
  parts.
• One is the circuit pathway where the electrical
  current flows-typically through a wire.
• Another is the switch, a device that starts and
  stops the flow of electrical current by either
  completing or breaking the circuit's pathway.
• Transistors have no moving parts and are turned
  on and off by electrical signals.
• The on/off switching of transistors facilitates
  the work performed by microprocessors.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
55
The Flow of Information
Transistors
Chapter 30

• How a Transistor Handles Information
• A Binary Counter is something that has only two
  states, like a transistor, and can be referred to
  as binary.
• The transistor's "on" state is represented by a
  1, and the "off" state is represented by a 0.
• Specific sequences and patterns of 1's and 0's
  generated by multiple transistors can represent
  letters, numbers, colors, and graphics.
• This is known as binary notation.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
56
Transistor is a Semiconductor
Transistors
Chapter 30

• Conductors and Insulators
• Many materials, such as most metals, allow
  electrical current to flow through them. These
  are known as conductors.
• Materials that do not allow electrical current to
  flow through them are called insulators.
• Pure silicon, the base material of most
  transistors, is considered a semiconductor
  because its conductivity can be modulated by the
  introduction of impurities.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
57
Anatomy of Transistors
Transistors
Chapter 30

• Semiconductors and the Flow of Electricity
• Adding certain types of impurities to the silicon
  in a transistor changes its crystalline structure
  and enhances its ability to conduct electricity.
• Silicon containing boron impurities is called
  p-type silicon-p for positive or lacking
  electrons.
• Silicon containing phosphorus impurities is
  called n-type silicon-n for negative or having a
  majority of free electrons.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
58
Principle Operation (Intel)
Transistors
Chapter 30

• Transistors consist of three terminals the
  source, the gate, and the drain.
• In the n-type transistor, both the source and the
  drain are negatively charged and sit on a
  positively charged well of p-silicon.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
59
Principle Operation (contd)
Transistors
Chapter 30

• When positive voltage is applied to the gate,
  electrons in the p-silicon are attracted to the
  area under the gate, forming an electron channel
  between the source and the drain.
• When positive voltage is applied to the drain,
  the electrons are pulled from the source to the
  drain. In this state the transistor is on.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
60
Principle Operation (contd)
Transistors
Chapter 30

• If the voltage at the gate is removed, electrons
  aren't attracted to the area between the source
  and drain. The pathway is broken and the
  transistor is turned off.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
61
Transistors Applications
Transistors
Chapter 30

• The binary function of transistors gives
  microprocessors the ability to perform many
  tasks, from simple word processing to video
  editing.
• Microprocessors have evolved to a point where
  transistors can execute hundreds of millions of
  instructions per second on a single chip.
• Automobiles, medical devices, televisions,
  computers, and even the Space Shuttle use
  microprocessors.
• They all rely on the flow of binary information
  made possible by the transistor.

http//intel.com/education/transworks/index.htm
62
5. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICs)
Integrated Circuits
Chapter 32

• Integrated circuits (ICs) have reduced the size,
  weight, and power requirements of todays
  electronic equipment.
• They are replacing transistors in electronic
  circuits just as transistors once replaced vacuum
  tubes.
• It is actually microelectronic circuits.
• Contained within the IC itself are
  microscopically small electronic components such
  as diodes, transistors, resistors, and capacitors.

63
Overview

• An integrated circuit (IC) is a thin chip
  consisting of at least two interconnected
  semiconductor devices, mainly transistors, as
  well as passive components like resistors.
• As of 2004, typical chips are of size 1 cm2 or
  smaller, and contain millions of interconnected
  devices, but larger ones exist as well.
• Among the most advanced integrated circuits are
  the microprocessors, which drive everything from
  computers to cellular phones to digital microwave
  ovens.
• Digital memory chips are another family of
  integrated circuits that are crucially important
  in modern society.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
64
Overview (contd)

• The integrated circuit was made possible by
  mid-20th-century technology advancements in
  semiconductor device fabrication and experimental
  discoveries that showed that semiconductor
  devices could perform the functions performed by
  vacuum tubes at the time.
• The integration of large numbers of tiny
  transistors onto a small chip was an enormous
  improvement to the manual assembly of
  finger-sized vacuum tubes.
• The integrated circuit's small size, reliability,
  fast switching speeds, low power consumption,
  mass production capability, and ease of adding
  complexity quickly pushed vacuum tubes into
  obsolescence.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
65
Overview (contd)

• Only a half century after their development was
  initiated, integrated circuits have become
  ubiquitous.
• Computers, cellular phones, and other digital
  appliances are now inextricable parts of the
  structure of modern societies.
• Indeed, many scholars believe that the digital
  revolution brought about by integrated circuits
  was one of the most significant occurrences in
  the history of mankind.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
66
Significance of ICs

• Integrated circuits can be classified into
  analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and
  digital on the same chip).
• Digital integrated circuits can contain anything
  from one to millions of logic gates, flip-flops,
  multiplexers, etc. in a few square millimeters.
  The small size of these circuits allows high
  speed, low power dissipation, and reduced
  manufacturing cost compared with board-level
  integration.
• The growth of complexity of integrated circuits
  follows a trend called "Moore's Law", first
  observed by Gordon Moore of Intel. Moore's Law in
  its modern interpretation states that the number
  of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles
  every two years. By the year 2000 the largest
  integrated circuits contained hundreds of
  millions of transistors. It is difficult to say
  whether the trend will eventually slow down (see
  technological singularity).
• The integrated circuit is one of the most
  important inventions of the 20th century. Modern
  computing, communications, manufacturing, and
  transportation systems, including the Internet,
  all depend on its existence.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
67
Types of ICs

1. Small-Scale Integration (SSI)
2. Medium-Scale Integration (MSI)
3. Large-Scale Integration (LSI)
4. Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI)
5. Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI)
6. Wafer-Scale Integration (WSI)
7. System-On-Chip (SOC)

68
Small-Scale Integration (SSI)

• The first integrated circuits contained only a
  few transistors. Called "Small-Scale Integration"
  (SSI), they used circuits containing transistors
  numbering in the tens.
• SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace
  projects, and vice-versa. Both the Minuteman
  missile and Apollo program needed lightweight
  digital computers for their inertially-guided
  flight computers the Apollo guidance computer
  led and motivated the integrated-circuit
  technology, while the Minuteman missile forced it
  into mass-production.
• These programs purchased almost all of the
  available integrated circuits from 1960 through
  1963, and almost alone provided the demand that
  funded the production improvements to get the
  production costs from 1000/circuit (in 1960
  dollars) to merely 25/circuit (in 1963 dollars).

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
69
Medium-Scale Integration (MSI)

• The next step in the development of integrated
  circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced
  devices which contained hundreds of transistors
  on each chip, called "Medium-Scale Integration"
  (MSI).
• They were attractive economically because while
  they cost little more to produce than SSI
  devices, they allowed more complex systems to be
  produced using smaller circuit boards, less
  assembly work (because of fewer separate
  components), and a number of other advantages.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
70
Large-Scale Integration (LSI)

• Further development, driven by the same economic
  factors, led to "Large-Scale Integration" (LSI)
  in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of
  transistors per chip.
• LSI circuits began to be produced in large
  quantities around 1970, for computer main
  memories and pocket calculators.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
71
Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI)

• The final step in the development process,
  starting in the 1980s and continuing on, was
  "Very Large-Scale Integration" (VLSI), with
  hundreds of thousands of transistors, and beyond
  (well past several million in the latest stages).
• For the first time it became possible to
  fabricate a CPU or even an entire microprocessor
  on a single integrated circuit. In 1986 the first
  one megabit RAM chips were introduced, which
  contained more than one million transistors.
  Microprocessor chips produced in 1994 contained
  more than three million transistors.
• This step was largely made possible by the
  codification of "design rules" for the CMOS
  technology used in VLSI chips, which made
  production of working devices much more of a
  systematic endeavour. (See the 1980 landmark text
  by Carver Mead and Lynn Conway referenced below.)

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
72
Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI)

• To reflect further growth of the complexity, the
  term ULSI that stands for Ultra-Large Scale
  Integration was proposed for chips of complexity
  more than 1 million of transistors.
• However there is no qualitative leap between VLSI
  and ULSI, hence normally in technical texts the
  "VLSI" term covers ULSI as well, and "ULSI" is
  reserved only for cases when it is necessary to
  emphasize the chip complexity, e.g., in
  marketing.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
73
Wafer-Scale Integration (WSI)

• The most extreme integration technique is
  wafer-scale integration (WSI), which uses whole
  uncut wafers containing entire computers
  (processors as well as memory).
• Attempts to take this step commercially in the
  1980s (e.g. by Gene Amdahl) failed, mostly
  because of defect-free manufacturability
  problems, and it does not now seem to be a high
  priority for industry.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
74
System-On-Chip (SOC)

• The WSI technique failed commercially, but
  advances in semiconductor manufacturing allowed
  for another attack on the IC complexity, known as
  System-on-Chip (SOC) design.
• In this approach, components traditionally
  manufactured as separate chips to be wired
  together on a printed circuit board, are designed
  to occupy a single chip that contains memory,
  microprocessor(s), peripheral interfaces,
  Input/Output logic control, data converters,
  etc., i.e., the whole electronic system.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
75
Other Developments

• In the 1980s programmable integrated circuits
  were developed. These devices contain circuits
  whose logical function and connectivity can be
  programmed by the user, rather than being fixed
  by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This
  allows a single chip to be programmed to
  implement different LSI-type functions such as
  logic gates, adders and registers. Current
  devices named FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate
  Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of
  LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 400
  MHz.
• The techniques perfected by the integrated
  circuits industry over the last three decades
  have been used to create microscopic machines,
  known as MEMS. These devices are used in a
  variety of commercial and defense applications,
  including projectors, ink jet printers, and are
  used to deploy the airbag in car accidents.
• In the past, radios could not be fabricated in
  the same low-cost processes as microprocessors.
  But since 1998, a large number of radio chips
  have been developed using CMOS processes.
  Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or
  Atheros's 802.11 card

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
76
Packaging

• The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in
  ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by
  the military for their reliability and small size
  for many years.
• Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the
  dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and
  later in plastic.
• In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded
  the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to
  pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier
  (LCC) packages.
• Surface mount packaging appeared in the early
  1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using
  finer lead pitch with leads formed as either
  gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by SOIC and
  PLCC packages.
• In the late 1990s, PQFP and TSOP packages became
  the most common for high pin count devices,
  though PGA packages are still often used for
  high-end microprocessors.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits
77
6. RECTIFIERS
Diode
Chapter 29

• Most electronic equipment requires DC power, and
  if the equipment draws its power from an AC
  supply it is necessary to convert the AC supply
  into a suitable DC voltage source.
• Rectifiers are the main part of a DC power
  supply.

78
Half-Wave Rectifier
Diode
Chapter 29

• The diode is the component which does the
  rectification, since it permits current flow in
  one direction only. The resistor RL represents
  the resistance of the load drawing the power.
• Let's analyse this circuit assuming the diode is
  ideal. When vS gt 0, the diode is forward biased,
  and so switched on therefore vout vS.
• But when vS lt 0, the diode is reverse biased,
  i.e. switched off, and hence vout 0 V. This is
  illustrated in the second figure.

79
Full-Wave Rectifier
Diode
Chapter 29

• In the half-wave rectifier the voltage is zero
  for half of the cycle.
• Full-wave rectifiers are designed using two or
  more diodes so that voltage is produced over the
  whole cycle.
• First figure shows a full-wave rectifier designed
  using two diodes and a center-tapped AC supply
  (i.e. center-tapped transformer).
• The waveforms are shown in second figure.
• The center tapping implies that the two source
  voltages v1 and v2 are a half cycle out of phase.
  
• We see that diode D1 conducts when source v1 is
  positive, and D2 conducts when v2 is positive,
  giving the waveform vout.

80
Full-Wave Rectifier (contd)
Diode
Chapter 29

• Alternatively, full-wave rectifier can also be
  constructed by using four diodes and a single AC
  source.
• This is known as bridge rectifier.
• The waveform of vout is the same as for the
  center-tapped full-wave rectifier.

81
Capacitor Filters
Diode
Chapter 29

• It can be seen from the previous two waveform,
  vout is not very smooth.
• For many applications it is desired to have a
  much smoother DC waveform, and so a filtering
  circuit is used first figure.
• The waveform produced by this filtered half-wave
  rectifier is shown in second figure, illustrating
  the ripple.
• Here, ripple is defined as the difference between
  the maximum and minimum voltages on the waveform,
  third figure.

82
7. ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

• Electronic symbols represent the actual
  components in the outline of the circuit under
  development.
• The symbols are merely used in various electronic
  schematic diagrams for analysis, detail outline,
  etc..

83
Resistors Symbols
84
Capacitors Symbols
85
Diodes Symbols
86
Transistors Symbols
87
Audio and Radio Devices
88
Meters and Oscilloscope
89
Sensors