MOTIVATION

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MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
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• A Beginning Common Sense List of Motivations
• behavioral 
• wanting or needing to obtain desirable
  consequences (rewards) or escape/avoid
  undesirable consequences anticipated or actual
• wanting or needing something as elicited by
  classical conditioning (bio-behavioral).
• biological
• wanting or needing an increase or decrease in
  stimulation or arousal in order to resolve
  boredom (under-stimulation) or reduce some form
  of stress or tension (psycho-physiologically
  over-stimulation)
• wanting or needing to decrease hunger, thirst,
  pain, terror, sex drive, etc., which also
  involves decreasing aversive internal physical
  stimulation
• wanting or needing to sleep, rest, or wake up
• wanting or needing to have physical control of
  ones body
• wanting or needing to act on anger against
  others (bio-emotional-social)
• wanting or needing to act on a
  psycho-physiological feeling of love for someone,
  oneself, or other things such as animals, nature,
  and religious beliefs (bio-social)
• wanting or needing to feel safe and secure
  (bio-emotional-social).

Modified version of a list developed by Professor
Bill Huitt and available on his website. Used
here with his written permission.
3

• A Beginning Common Sense List of Motivations
• cognitive
• wanting or needing to attend to something
  interesting, challenging, promising, or
  threatening
• wanting or needing to acquire knowledge or
  understanding
• wanting or needing to decrease cognitive
  dissonance, inconsistency, or uncertainty among
  thoughts and beliefs and associated behavior
• wanting or needing to solve a problem or
  eliminate a threat or risk
• wanting or needing to eliminate inconsistency
  between ones bad actions and ones need for
  self-esteem mind games or distorting the facts
  in ones own favor
• wanting or needing to be optimistic or hopeful
• wanting or needing to perceive sensory input in a
  manner that gives one a sense of being oriented
  and having cognitive control
• wanting or needing self-respect or a positive
  self-concept
• wanting or needing to grow and to achieve
  specific goals
• wanting or needing to create something good or
  beautiful
• wanting or needing to be in control of ones
  life
• wanting or needing to believe in a supreme being
  or creator who values humans enough to give them
  immortality
• wanting or needing to feel competent
• wanting or needing to attribute causes to
  events.

Modified version of a list developed by Professor
Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here
with written permission.
Modified version of a list developed by Professor
Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here
with written permission
4

• A Beginning Common Sense List of Motivations
• affective 
• wanting or needing to increase specific good
  feelings and moods
• wanting or needing to decrease specific bad
  feelings and moods
• wanting or needing to act on feelings of empathy
  (bio-soc-emotional)
• wanting or needing a thrill (sensation seeking
  or thrill seeking).
• social   
• wanting or needing to imitate models with status
  who are able to obtain rewards
• wanting or needing to be valued and admired by
  significant others (cognitive-behavioral)
• wanting or needing to help and support others in
  need when one is being empathetic and not
  reacting to fear
• wanting or needing to punish those one believes
  have wronged them or wronged someone they love or
  care about (bio-social)
• wanting or needing to help others in spite of
  threats to self and related fear courage
  (social-affective)
• wanting or needing others to care about
  (social-affective).
• wanting or needing to be socially responsible
  and socially conscious.

Modified version of a list developed by Professor
Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here
with written permission
5
Many explanations have been given for why human
beings do what they do
Instincts
Drives
Excitement/Arousal
Goals/Incentives
Achievement
Self-Fulfillment
Friendship/Affiliation
Power
These explanations of motivation can be divided
into five categories
behavioral biological emotional cognitive
social
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004
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• Motivation Defined
• The following definitions reflect the consensus
  that motivation is an internal state (sometimes
  described as
• a need, desire, or want) that activates behavior
  and/or thought and gives either or both
  direction.
• An internal state or condition that activates
  behavior
• and gives it direction
• A desire or want that energizes and directs
  goal-oriented behavior
• The influence of needs and desires on the
  intensity
• and direction of behavior
• The arousal, direction, and persistence of
  behavior
• Physiological and psychological factors that
  account
• for the arousal, direction, and persistence of
  behavior (Davis and Palladino, 2005).

Modified version of information made available by
Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here
with his written permission
7
Types of Motivation

• INTRINSIC VS

• EXTRINSIC

Arrangement by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004
8
Intrinsic Extrinsic Motivators

• Intrinsic motivator
• Some behaviors have directly rewarding results
  that satisfy drives (e.g. food when hungry,
  entertainment when bored).
• Many behaviors are engaged in because they are
  valued, beneficial to self and/or others, and
  elicit rewarding feelings (e.g., pride,
  self-worth, compassion).
• Extrinsic motivator
• Externally available stimulus not related to the
  satisfaction of immediate drives, desires, or
  needs (e.g. money).
• Includes immediate external environmental
  consequences of behavior, and others
  encouragement.

Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Source Bell, Vaughan (2002). Motivation and
Emotion. PPT slide retrieved from
http//www.cf.ac.uk/psych/home/bellv1/conf/Vaughan
MotivationEmotionLecture2004.ppt5 Accompanying
MS Word Lecture at http//www.google.com/search?hl
enlrqfastrouteisquick2CinaccuratebtnGS
earch. Written permission granted.
9

• Sources of Motivation
• Explanations regarding the sources of motivation
  can be categorized as extrinsic (outside the
  person) or intrinsic (inside the person).
• Intrinsic sources can be subcategorized as (a)
  body (physical), (b) mind (mental), (c) mind
  (feeling), or
• (d) transpersonal (spiritual).
• Needs are dispositions toward action that are
  associated
• with subcategories (a-c) above.
• It appears likely that the initiation of behavior
  may be more related to emotions and/or the
  affective domain (optimism vs. pessimism
  self-esteem etc.), while persistence may be more
  related to conation (volition) or will and ones
  goal-orientation.

Modified version of information made available by
Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here
with his written permission.
10
MOTIVATION
EXTRINSIC
INTRINSIC
Operant Conditioning
Cognition
Affect
Conation
Social Cognition
Biology
Spirituality
Copied with written permission from Professor
Bill Huitts. Those interested in locating the
works cited in these slides should visit his
website at http//chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/m
otivation/motivate.html. Motivation is one of
many topics he covers. For a complete list, go
to the index at http//chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/
edpsyindxc.html. Dr. Bill Huitt is a helpful
and informed professor who would be willing to
assist you online if you have a question.
11
Theories of Motivation 1. Biological 2.
Behavioral 3. Cognitive 4. Social-
Learning/Social- Cognition 5. Humanistic 6.
Psychodynamic
Modified version of information made available by
Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website.
Used here with his written permission.
12
1. Biological 1a. Human Instincts, if they
exist, are involuntary, unlearned, and triggered
by environmental events called releasing
stimuli. 1b. Drive Reduction views motivation
as reducing physiological imbalances. A drive is
an internal motivational state that is manifest
as a physical need. 1c. Optimum Arousal-Level
proposes that we seek an optimum level of arousal
and that our level at any given time can be too
high or too low. Any form of stimulation or
cognitive activity affects arousal, but each is
qualitatively unique.
Modified version of information made available by
Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here
with his written permission.
13
1a. INSTINCT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Instinct theories of motivation were among the
first and were popular in the early 20th
century (e.g. McDougall, 1908). They began to
decline in popularity in 1930 with the
introduction of Behaviorism. Some of the first
theories of motivation attributed human behavior
to instincts. Freuds explanation of motivation
is rooted in a belief in instincts. One 1920's
list included the following human instincts
acquisitiveness escape mating rivalry submission
cleanliness fear modesty secretiveness sympathy
combativeness food-seeking parental love self-assertion ?
constructiveness hunting play shyness ?
curiosity jealousy repulsion sociability ?
McDougall, William (1908, 2003). Introduction to
Social Psychology, 30th Edition. Dover
Publications. Adapted by Dr. Gordon Vessels.
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1b. Biological Drives

• Drive-Reduction Theory (1940s and 50s)
• Proposes that a physiological need creates an
  aroused state (a drive) that motivates a person
  to satisfy this need.

We act to reduce the push exerted by drives,
internal stimuli that represent biological needs.
Behavior helps us to maintain homeostasis, or a
steady biological state. When an internal system
is out of balance, a drive builds up to force
balance restoration. Typically primary and
secondary drives are identified. Still, our
behavior is not always consistent with our
drives. You may be hungry right now, but you're
not eating. Perhaps the biggest hole in this
theory is that some behaviors do not decrease
internal tensions, they increase them.
Benoit, Anthony (2002). Emotion and Motivation
Module 33-38 course outline. Retrieved from
http//environmentalet.org/psy111/motimotion.htmt
heoriesm
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
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1b. Drive Theory (internal) vs 2. Incentive
Theory (external)

• 1b. Drive theories stress internal factors
• in motivating behavior drives are often
• tied to physiological processes such as thirst,
  sex, and aggression i.e. they might exist
  regardless of the outside world.
• 2. Incentive theories stress the influence
• of external stimuli or events. i.e. something
  external stimulates us directionally e.g. the
  smell of baking bread may induce hunger.

Source Bell, Vaughan (2004). Motivation and
emotion PPT lecture presentation. Used as a
source with written permission. Retrieved from
http//www.cf.ac.uk/psych/home/bellv1/conf/Vaughan
MotivationEmotionLecture2004.ppt6 Accompanying
MS Word lecture at http//www.google.com/search?hl
enlrqfastrouteisquick2CinaccuratebtnGS
earch.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
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1950s 1960s The Post-Drive-Theory Years

• These are transitional decades
• Two post-drive theories
• 1c. Arousal theory (biological theory 3)
• Environment affects how aroused the brain becomes
  psycho-physiologically.
• A curvilinear relationship between arousal and
  behavior (see next three slides).
• 2. Incentive theory (behavioral theory)
• Motivational states could be acquired through
  experience and external stimuli
• New motivational concepts incentives
• Moment-to-moment changes of motivation

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
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Arousal and Peak Performance
high
medium
Performance
We perform best when the tasks or challenges we
take on produce a moderate level of arousal.
Task difficulty factors into this with
low-difficulty tasks yielding lower arousal than
high-difficulty tasks.
low
low
medium
high
Arousal
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
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Arousal Yerkes-Dodson Law

• U-shaped curvilinear relationship
• between arousal and performance

100
75
Tasks of moderate difficulty
PERFORMANCE
50
25
0
LOW AROUNSAL HIGH AROUSAL
OPTIMUM AROUSAL
Adapted from Craig, Scotty (2002). Motivation and
emotions, a PPT presentation retrieved from
http//www.psyc.memphis.edu/students/craig/1102/12
Motivation2020Emotions.ppt1
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
19
Arousal Yerkes-Dodson Law
100
75
PERFORMANCE
Tasks low in difficulty
50
25
0
LOW AROUNSAL HIGH AROUSAL

OPTIMUM AROUSAL
Adapted from Craig, Scotty (2002). Motivation and
emotions, a PPT presentation retrieved from
http//www.psyc.memphis.edu/students/craig/1102/12
Motivation2020Emotions.ppt1
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
20
Arousal Yerkes-Dodson Law
100
75
Tasks of high difficulty
PERFORMANCE
50
25
LOW AROUNSAL HIGH
AROUSAL OPTIMUM AROUSAL
Adapted from Craig, Scoty (2002). Motivation and
emotions, a PPT presentation retrieved from
http//www.psyc.memphis.edu/students/craig/1102/12
Motivation2020Emotions.ppt1
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
21

• 2. Behavioral Theory (Incentives)
• Each of the two major theoretical models in
  behavioral psychology posits a primary
  motivational factor.
• Classical conditioning states that biological
  responses to associated stimuli energize and
  direct behavior. This does not explain
  motivation to the extent that operant
  conditioning does.
• Operant conditioning proposes that the primary
  factor is the consequences of behavior and
  related expectations via conditioning the
  application of positive or negative reinforcers
  provides incentives to increase behavior the
  application of positive or negative punishers
  provides disincentives that decrease behavior.

Modified version of information made available by
Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website.
Used here with his written permission
22
3. Cognitive Theories 3a Cognitive Dissonance
Theory
Cognitive dissonance theory is similar to
disequilibrium in Piagets theory of cognitive
development. CD theory states that when there is
a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions,
or between a belief and an action, we will act to
resolve these discrepancies and distort the facts
to our advantage if necessary. Beliefs about
self can be involved, and protecting self-esteem
is often pivotal
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3a. Cognitive Dissonance

• Festinger (1957) proposed a very specific
  cognitive source of motivation that produces a
  motivating psychophysiological state.
• They discovered what happens when a person is
  faced with a combination of their own actions,
  beliefs, and thoughts that are contradictory,
  conflicting, inconsistent, or dissonant.
• According to Festinger this causes a a tension or
  cognitive dissonance, often resolved through
  rationalization and other reality distortions.
• For example, thinking or behaving in a manner
  that is inconsistent with ones moral standards
  or ones positive opinion of self would cause
  this tension.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive
  Dissonance. Stanford, CA Stanford University
  Press.

Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
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3b. Attribution Theory
The second approach is (Heider, 1958). Every
individual tries to explain success or failure
through "attributions," which are either internal
or external, and either under ones control
(effort, ability) or out of ones control (luck,
task difficulty). Heider, F. (1958). The
Psychology of Interpersonal. Relations. New York
Wiley.
25
3b. What is Attribution Theory

• Attribution theory is concerned with
• answering the question, Why do people do
• what they do?
• It is a theory concerned with how people
• formulate explanations about the causes of
• their own behavior and that of others.
• The causal explanations assume that behavior
• is caused by things either inside or outside
  the
• person, and within or outside their control.
• People attribute a causal explanations to an
• atypical behavior because they want to make
• sense of it.

Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
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3b. Fritz Heider Attribution Theory

• As far back as 1944, Heider hypothesised
• that . . .
• 1. People perceive behavior as being
• caused and
• 2. The causes of behavior are thought to be
  either inside or outside the person.

Heider, F. (1944). Social perception and
phenomenal causality. Psychological Review, 51,
358-374.
Heider concluded in 1958 that people are
naïve lay scientists who explain the causes
of events as best they can.
Heider, F. (1958). The Psychology of
Interpersonal. Relations. New York Wiley.
Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
27
3b. Dispositional Situational Attributions

• Internal (dispositional) attributions internal
  characteristics such as attitude, mood, ability,
  or personality.
• External (situational) attributions behavior has
  been caused by outside factors, which
• Implies the actor could not help it and had no
  control over it
• Planned behaviors are attributed internally.
• Involuntary behaviors . . . internal or external.
• Attributions of cause reflect what the observer
  perceives as the person or event responsible.

London South Bank University (2005). Information
retrieved from http//www.lsbu.ac.uk/psycho/teachi
ng/ppfiles/devsoco-attribution.ppt5
Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
28
3b. Weiners Attribution Theory

• Weiners theory focuses on achievement.
• It identifies (a) ability, (b) effort, (c) task
  difficulty, and (d) luck as causes to which
  achievement or lack thereof is attributed.
• Furthermore, attributions are scaled along three
  dimensions (a) locus of control, (b) stability,
  and (c) controllability.
• Causal attributions affect reactions to success
  or failure (e.g. a perceived internal locus of
  control brings a positive feeling of success and
  a willingness to take credit).

London South Bank University (2005). Information
retrieved from http//www.lsbu.ac.uk/psycho/teachi
ng/ppfiles/devsoco-attribution.ppt5
Slide Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
29
3b. Weiners Attribution Theory
Stable Unstable
Internal Ability Effort
External Task Difficulty Luck
To what is success attributed? What is the cause?
Locus of Control
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
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3b. Weiners AttributionTheory
High Achievers Low Achievers
Locus of Control Perceived internal locus Perceived external locus
Stability Perceived high ability Often doubt their ability
Controllability Confidence and high self-esteem Low self-confidence and subject to chance
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
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3b. Attribution Dimensions Combinations
Internal Internal External External
Stable Unstable Stable Unstable
Controllable Usual Effort Special Effort Help or No Help from Others Special Help or No Help from Others
Not Controllable Ability Mood Task Difficulty Luck or Chance
London South Bank University (2005). Information
retrieved from http//www.lsbu.ac.uk/psycho/teachi
ng/ppfiles/devsoco-attribution.ppt5
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
32
4. Cognitive-Behavioral Theories or Expectancy
or Value-Expectancy Theories

• 4a. Vroom (1964) proposes that Motivation
  Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) X
  Connection Between Success and Reward
  (Instrumentality) X Value of Obtaining the Goal
  (Value). Since the three factors of Value,
  Expectancy, and Instrumentality are multiplied by
  each other, a low value in one will result in a
  low value in motivation. If one doesn't believe
  he can be successful OR does not see a connection
  between his activity and reward OR does not value
  the results of success, then motivation is
  lacking.

Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New
York Wiley.
33
4b. Rotters Theory Combines Behaviorism and
Personality Research
To understand behavior, one must take (a) the
individual (life history of learning and
experiences) and (b) the environment (stimuli the
person is aware of and responding to) into
account.
If you change the way the person thinks, or
change the environment he or she is responding
to, you change behavior.
Reinforcement Value refers to the desirability of
these outcomes. Things we want to happen, that we
are attracted to, have a high reinforcement
value.
Behavior Potential is the likelihood of engaging
in a particular behavior in a specific situation.
Expectancy is the subjective probability that a
given behavior will lead to a particular outcome,
or reinforcer.
f
Behavior Potential (BP), Expectancy (E) and
Reinforcement Value (RV) can be combined into a
predictive formula for behavior BP f(E RV)
Psychological Situation. Although the
psychological situation does not figure directly
into Rotter's formula for predicting behavior, he
believes it is always important to keep in mind
that different people interpret the same
situation differently.
Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and
clinical psychology. New York Prentice Hall.
Slide designed by Dr. Gordon Vessels, 2005.
34
4c. Expectancy-Value Theory (Cognitive Behavioral)
Atkinsons (1957) expectancy-value theory states
that achievement, performance, persistence, and
choice are directly linked to an individuals
expectancy-related and task-value
beliefs. Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational
determinants of risk-taking behaviors.
Psychological Review, 64, 359-372. The expectancy
aspect focuses on beliefs about efficacy,
competence, expectations for success, and
failure, plus feelings of control over outcomes.
The value aspect focuses on incentives,
personality, character, and reasons for engaging
in activities. Most expectancy-value theorists
see expectancies and values as positively
related. Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational
determinants of risk-taking behaviors.
Psychological Review, 64, 359-372.
35

• 4e. Values-Expectations Internal-External
• Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl (1995) proposed 5
  factors as the sources (1) Instrumental
  Motivation (rewards and punishers), (2) Intrinsic
  Process Motivation (enjoyment, fun),
• (3) Goal Internalization (self-determined values
  and goals), (4) Internal Self- Concept-Based
  Motivation (matching behavior with
  internally-developed ideal self), and (5)
  External Self Concept-based Motivation (matching
  behavior with externally-developed ideal self).
  Individuals are influenced by all five factors,
  though in varying degrees that change from
  situation to situation. 
• Leonard, Nancy, Beauvais, Laura Lynn, and
  Scholl, Richard W. (1995). A Self-concept based
  model of work motivation. Paper presented at the
  annual Academy of Management meeting.  Retrieved
  from http//www.cba.uri.edu/Scholl/Papers/Self_Con
  cept_Motivation.HTM.
• Factors one and five are external. Individuals
  who are instrumentally motivated are influenced
  by immediate actions in the environment (e.g.
  operant conditioning) individuals who are
  self-concept motivated are influenced by their
  constructions of external demands and ideals
  (e.g., social cognition).
• Factors two, three, and four are internal.
  Intrinsic means the specific task
• is interesting and provides immediate internal
  reinforcement (e.g., cognitive
• or humanistic theory). The individual with a
  goal-internalization orientation is task-oriented
  (e.g., humanistic or social cognition theory)
  the person with an internal self-concept
  orientation is influenced by individual
  constructions of
• the ideal self (humanistic or psychoanalytic
  theory).

Modified version of a list developed by Professor
Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here
with the written permission of Bill Huitt.
36

• 5. Social Learning/Cognition Theories
• Social learning theory suggests that modeling
  (imitating others) and vicarious reinforcement
  (watching others have consequences applied to
  their behavior) are important motivators.
  Associated with Bandura.
• Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal
  determinism. In this view, the environment, an
  individual's behavior, and the individual's
  characteristics (e.g., knowledge, emotions,
  cognitive development) influence and are
  influenced by each other.
• Albert Bandura highlights the concepts of
  self-efficacy (the belief that a particular
  action goal can be accomplished) and
  self-regulation (the (a) establishment of goals,
  (b) development of a plan, (c) commitment to
  implement that plan, (d) implementation of the
  plan, and (e) subsequent reflection and
  modification or redirection).
• All of these concepts are incorporated into
  various eclectic expectancy and values and
  expectancy theories to be described and
  elaborated in the next few slides.

Modified version of information made available by
Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here
with his written permission.
37
5a. Banduras Social-Cognitive Theory

• Banduras social-cognitive model of motivation
  places emphasis on self-efficacy.
• Bandura defined self-efficacy as individuals
  confidence in their ability to organize and
  execute a given course of action to solve a
  problem or accomplish a task he characterized
  it as a multidimensional construct that varies
  in strength, generality, and level (or
  difficulty) (Eccles Wigfield, 2002, p. 110).
• Self-efficacy focuses on EXPECTATIONS
• Expectations for success (Outcome Expectations)
  a
• belief that certain behaviors will result in
  certain outcomes.
• Efficacy Expectations a belief about whether
  or not one
• can perform the behaviors necessary to attain a
  certain
• outcome
• Extracted from Eccles, Allan Wigfield,
  Jacquelyn (2002). Development of Achievement
  Motivation, First Edition. San Diego, CA
  Academic Press.

38
5b. Banduras Social Learning Theory
Bandura mentions several motives for imitating a
model a.  past reinforcementb.  promised
reinforcement (incentives) c.  vicarious
reinforcement -- seeing and recalling the model
being reinforced. These are traditionally
viewed as things that cause learning Bandura
proposes instead that they cause us to show
what we have learned, that is, they are motives.
Negative motivations give us reason not to
imitate d.  past punishment. e.  promised
punishment (disincentives) d.  vicarious
punishment. He states that punishment does not
work as well as Reinforcement and can produce
undesirable consequences.
Modified version of information made available by
Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website.
Used here with his writtenpermission
39
6. Humanistic Theories of Motivation
6a. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow is known for his hierarchy of
needs theory. He proposed that human beings are
motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain
lower-level or deficiency needs must be
satisfied before activities that could satisfy
higher-level needs can be seriously pursued.
According to Maslow, there are several types
of needs (physiological, safety, love, and
esteem) that must be satisfied before a person
can act unselfishly. He called these
deficiency needs. As long as we are motivated
to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards
growth, toward self- actualization (Gwynne,
1997, para 3).
Gwynne, Robert (1997). Maslows Hierarchy of
Needs. Retrieved from http//web.utk.edu/gwynne/
maslow.HTM
40
6a. Maslow's Metamotivation Self actualizing
people are motivated differently than those who
are not self-actualizing. Maslow calls this
Metamotivation or B-Motivation for (Being
Motivation). Self-actualizers are not preoccupied
by reducing tensions but by the desire to enrich
their lives. The motivation to self actualize is
intrinsic actions for the sake of actions
rather than for some external reward. Maslow's D
Motivation or Deficiency Motivation
D-Motivation rectifies deficiencies and the
physical, emotional, and cognitive tension or
discomfort associated with them biologic,
psychological gratification through lower level
needs
Falikowski, A. (2002). Mastering Human Relations,
3rd Edition. Pearson Education. Summary
information on Motivation retrieved from Karen
Hamiltons webpage at http//webhome.idirect.com/
kehamilt/ipsymot.html. Slide arrangement by Dr.
Gordon Vessels, 2005.
41

• Maslows Needs in Detail
• Extracted from http//web.utk.edu/gwynne/mas
  low.HTM
• Physiological Needs
• Physiological needs are very basic needs such
  as air, water, food, sleep, sex, etc. When these
  are not satisfied we may feel sickness,
  irritation, pain, discomfort, etc. These feelings
  motivate us to alleviate them as soon as possible
  to establish homeostasis. Once they are
  alleviated, we may think about other things.
• Safety Needs
• Safety needs have to do with establishing
  stability and consistency in a chaotic world.
  These needs are mostly psychological in nature.
  We need the security of a home and family.
  However, if a family is dysfunction, i.e., an
  abusive husband, the wife cannot move to the next
  level because she is constantly concerned for her
  safety. Love and belongingness have to wait until
  she is no longer cringing in fear. Many in our
  society cry out for law and order because they do
  not feel safe enough to go for a walk in their
  neighborhood. Many people, particularly those in
  the inner cities, unfortunately, are stuck at
  this level. In addition, safety needs sometimes
  motivate people to be religious. Religions
  comfort us with the promise of a safe secure
  place after we die and leave the insecurity of
  this world.
• Love Needs
• Love and belongingness are next on the ladder.
  Humans have a desire to belong to groups clubs,
  work groups, religious groups, family, gangs,
  etc. We need to feel loved (non-sexual) by
  others, to be accepted by others. Performers
  appreciate applause. We need to be needed. Beer
  commercials, in addition to playing on sex, also
  often show how beer makes for camaraderie. When
  was the last time you saw a beer commercial with
  someone drinking beer alone?
• Esteem Needs
• There are two types of esteem needs. First is
  self-esteem which results from competence or
  mastery of a task. Second, there's the attention
  and recognition that comes from others. This is
  similar to the belongingness level, however,
  wanting admiration has to do with the need for
  power. People who have all of their lower needs
  satisfied, often drive very expensive cars
  because doing so raises their level of esteem.
  Hey, look what I can afford-peon! "
• Self-Actualization
• The need for self-actualization is "the desire
  to become more and more what one is, to become
  everything that one is capable of becoming."
  People who have everything can maximize their
  potential. They can seek knowledge, peace,
  esthetic experiences, self-fulfillment, oneness
  with God, etc. It is usually middle-class to
  upper-class students who take up environmental
  causes, join the Peace Corps, go off to a
  monastery, etc.

Gwynne, Robert (1997). Maslows Hierarchy of
Needs. Retrieved from http//web.utk.edu/gwynne/
maslow.HTM
42
6b. GLASSERS CONTROL/CHOICE THEORY Glasser's
Basic Needs 1. need to survive and reproduce
2. need to belong, love, share, cooperate 3.
need for power 4. need for freedom 5. need
for fun or pleasure and excitement All basic
needs are produced by genetics and biology.
Everyone is motivated. All people control their
behavior to maximize need satisfaction behavior
is inspired by what a person wants and needs
most (love, power, freedom, etc.) BUT how needs
are satisfied is not universal. We all have a
picture album in mind where we store images of
what we want and what we have. We have an ideal
world in mind. The picture of the ideal may
change. Some people have an unrealistic
picture. If what we want and what we get is
equivalent, then little frustration occurs.
The greater the frustration, the greater the
motivation to act ( this explains why people
fly into action).
Falikowski, A. (2002). Mastering Human Relations,
3rd Edition. Pearson Education. Summary
information on Motivation retrieved from Karen
Hamiltons webpage at http//webhome.idirect.com/
kehamilt/ipsymot.html. Slide arrangement by Dr.
Gordon Vessels, 2005.
43
6c. Achievement Need Theory
Personality Situational
Resultant Emotional
Behavior Traits
Conditions Tendency
Reactions Observed
Probability of Success Incentive Value of
Success
Approach Success
Focus on Pride of Success
Seek out achievement situations, 50/50
risks, challenges evaluative situations good
performance Avoid achievement situations avoid
risk of failure/shame perform poorly in
evaluating situations.
Motive to Achieve Success Motive to Avoid
Failure
X

OR
OR
Avoid Failure
Focus on Shame of Failure

X
Modified version of information made available by
Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website.
Used here with his written consent.
44
6c. Need for Achievement Theory

• McClelland (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark,
  Lowell, 1953) proposed that all humans have
• a distinct internal motive to
• Seek achievement
• Attain realistic but challenging goals
• Advance
• Individuals are thought to posses a strong need
  for feedback regarding their achievement and
  progress, and need a sense of accomplishment.

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
45

• 7. Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation
• The psychoanalytic theories of motivation
  propose a variety of influences. Freud (1990)
  suggested that all action or behavior is a result
  of potentially harmful internal, biological
  instincts classified into two categories life
  (sexual) and death (aggression). Freud's students
  broke with him over this concept.
• For example, Erikson proposed that interpersonal
  and social relationships are fundamental along
  with invariant developmental crises that must be
  resolved or responded to in some way Adler
  proposed that the need for power is basic Jung
  proposed that temperament and the search for
  meaning is basic.

Modified version of information made available by
Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here
with his written permission