SCIENCE ADMINISTRATION

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SCIENCE ADMINISTRATION LECTURE 36 SCIENTIFIC
PARADIGM OF FUNCTION FUNCTIONAL MODEL OF THE
MIND ILLUSTRATIONS Schools of Psychology
FREDERICK BETZ PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY
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We have described the current state of research
on localization of functions in the mind. But
this is a mechanistic description of where
reasoning processes occur in the brain. In
addition to a mechanistic locale map of the mind,
one also needs a functional map of the reasoning
of the mind (such as we saw in Kants Critique of
Pure Reason). To create such a functional
map (as opposed to a locale map) of the brain,
one needs to assemble the different psychological
processes of the mind consciousness,
sub-consciousness, will, etc. We can show how
this can be done in the following functional map
of the mind.
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One can begin to functionally map the concept of
human 'mind' by taking the simplest model in
modern psychology, the Stimulus-Response (S-R)
model. This partitions the mental world into a
'world' and 'mind'. The mind is stimulated
(perceives) objects in the world and responds by
taking action on nature in the world. Now the
connection of Stimulus (Perception) to Response
(Action) is created by a sequence of mental
processes of the mind.
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• STIMULUS-RESPONSE MODEL -- Perception of the
  World and Action in the World.
• The Stimulus-Response (SR) model of the mind
  traces back to the founder of modern psychology,
  Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt established an experimental
  approach to the study of psychology. William
  James later emphasized that the SR model need not
  be a direct physiological connection between
  stimulus and response, but the response can be
  mediated by learning. Wundt and James are
  sometimes called the founders of modern
  psychology.
• Later, Carl Jung introduced the idea that some
  personality types are primarily sensitive to
  external stimulus-inputs from the world
  (extroverts) and some to internal stimulus-inputs
  from the self (introverts).
• Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1930) was born in a town near
  Mannheim, Germany. He graduated in medicine from
  the University of Heidelberg in 1856. He joined
  the staff of Heidelberg as a research assistant.
  There he taught the first course in scientific
  psychology, stressing the use of experimental
  methods. This began the specialty of physiology,
  and in 1874, he published the Principles of
  Physiological Psychology. Physiology focuses
  upon the mechanisms of the senses, or the
  physical aspects of sensation.

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The psychological school of behaviorism followed
upon Wundt's methodology of measuring physical
stimuli and behavioral reactions. The most
famous behavioral experiment was performed by
Ivan Pavlov who trained dogs to expect food at
certain signals. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was
born in Ryazan, Russia. In 1879 he attained a
doctorate in natural science from the University
of St. Petersburg. He studied the gastric
function of dogs and noticed that dogs tended to
salivate before food was actually delivered. He
called the training of dogs to anticipate food
(salivate) upon a signal as 'conditioned
reflexes.
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William James (1842-1910) was born in New York
City in the U.S. In 1869, he attained a medical
degree from Harvard University. He was appointed
an instructor in physicology at Harvard in 1873.
In 1890, he published Principles of Psychology.
In this book, he described the stimulus-response
model of the mind but emphasized the
physiologically the stimulus could not be
directly hard-wired to a response but the
connection must be interruptible for the response
to be learned.
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• Next, we need to fill in the functional processes
  that transform perception into an action
  (stimulus to response). The operational steps
  needed are to
• Form a mental object,
• Determine the meaning of the object,
• Determine the value of the object,
• Decide upon the action to be taken.

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TO SUMMARIZE, THIS IS THE MODEL WE CONSTRUCT. We
will build it step by step.
MIND
WORLD
PURE REASON
CONSCIOUSNESS
STIMULUS (PERCEPTION)
THINKING INTUITION SENSATION FEELING
OBJECT
REPRESENTATION OF OBJECT
TRANSCENDENTAL AESTHETIC
TRANSCENDENTAL LOGIC
OBJECT
MEANING OF OBJECT
PERSPECTIVE
VALUES (ETHICS)
CRITICAL SELF
RESPONSE (ACTION)
VALUE OF OBJECT
MEANS (REALITY)
ENDS (VISION)
NATURE
ACTIVE SELF
MYTHIC SELF
RESOURCES (COURAGE)
PRIDE
SUB-CONSCIOUS
DECISION
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• PURE REASON -- A-Priori Capabilities of Mind.
• After first using the Stimulus-Response (S-R)
  theory, the second theory we can use to begin to
  connect stimulus to response is Kants theory of
  the mind as a reasoning process (information
  processing system). Here we have seen that one
  can use Kant's model of pure reason to indicate
  that any information processing of mind needs to
  format perceptions (input stimuli - input data)
  in some form of a transcendental aesthetic. (We
  recall that transcendental means prior to any
  and all experience.)
• Next, this formatted perceptions need to be
  processed by some mental stored program
  (transcendental logic) into a mental
  representation-of-an-object. This is the first
  stage of reasoning (pure reason) into which
  mental 'ideas' of an external object are
  processed.

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• CONSCIOUSNESS -- Cognitive Processes. Next the
  mental objects need to be cognitively manipulated
  in the mind. Here one can take Carl Jung's
  taxonomy of cognitive functions (thinking,
  intuition, sensation, feeling) to indicate the
  types of cognitive functioning the mind can use
  to process mental objects.
• We can call this set of cognitive functions the
  conscious operations of the mind --
  consciousness. In 1913, Jung described a
  typology of cognitive processes at the Munich
  Psychological Congress and published this in 1921
  as a book called Psychological Types. He
  described the conscious operations of the mind as
  occurring in different processes, of thinking
  (T), of feeling (F), of intuition (I), and of
  sensation (S).

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Carl Jung (1875-1961) was born in Thrugau,
Switzerland. He attended the University of
Basel, graduating in medicine in 1900. He
practiced psychiatric medicine and in 1906 sent
copy of his book on Studies in Word Association
to Sigmund Freud, after which they became friends
for only the next six years.
Implementing Jungs theory of cognition (thirty
years later in 1941), Katharine Cook Briggs and
Isabel Briggs Myers introduced sets of questions
to help identify which of the cognitive functions
(T,F,I,S) are preferred in frequency of use by a
given individual's cognition -- called the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. To characterize the
distinctions in Jungs categories, I developed
the following typology in 2001.
ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS MENTAL THINKING INTUITION
BODY SENSATION FEELING
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• SUB-CONSCIOUS Cognition also functions beneath
  the conscious level of the mind. We know from
  Sigmund Freud's work that not only does conscious
  processing go on consciously in the mind (Jung's
  cognitive functions) but sub-conscious mental
  processing occurs. When occurring, sub-conscious
  cognitive processes are not in awareness to the
  consciousness of the mind.
• Freud introduced the terms 'unconscious mind' and
  'repression' to indicate a cognitive activity
  beneath the conscious level that are sometimes
  not accessible to the consciousness -- due to
  'repression' of subconscious cognitive ideas.
• He identified aspects of the mind as divided into
  'id', 'ego', and 'super-ego'. The 'id' is an
  aspect of self driven by primitive drives. The
  'ego' is an aspect of self that deals with drives
  from the id. And the 'superego' is an aspect of
  self which imposes moral judgments upon the self.
  
• Freud used his terms such as 'ego', 'super-ego',
  'repression', 'dreaming' to describe functioning
  of the sub-conscious self. These terms of id,
  ego, and super-ego became jargon in the
  psychoanalytic school of psychology. (But not
  jargon across the whole of psychology because in
  general only the psychoanalytical school uses
  these terms.)
• But in addition to the ideas of Freud about the
  sub-conscious, we need to add the ideas of Jung,
  Campbell, and Nietzsche.

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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was born in Moravia,
then part of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire and
now part of the Czech Republic. He attended the
University of Vienna to study medicine,
graduating in 1881. In 1886, he opened his own
medical practice, specializing in neurology. In
1900, he published The Interpretation of Dreams,
in which he argued the logic in dreams could
depict unconscious and repressed desires.
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In 1919, Carl Jung introduced the idea that
personality could not only display personal
tendencies but also could display a 'collective'
aspect to any individual's unconsciousness (e.g.
a cultural aspect). Jung argued that these
collective aspects to self occurred as kinds of
'psychological archetypes. Later Joseph
Campbell expanded upon Jung's idea of archetypes
as kinds of mythic roles in the self. To model,
the sub-conscious function of the mind in a way
that combines Freud, Jung, and Campbell, I prefer
to use three terms of self (1) 'active self',
which is nearly equivalent to Freud's 'ego', (2)
'critical self', which is nearly equivalent to
Freud's 'super-ego', and (3) 'mythic self', which
is nearly equivalent to Jung's 'archetypes' and
Campbell's mythic roles.
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Carl Jung contributed not only to the idea of
categories of cognitive functions (thinking,
intuition, sensation, feeling) but also to the
idea of a collective unconsciousness. He called
the aspects of the self in a collective
unconsciousness as psychological
archetypes. Although at first friends with
Freud, Freud later bitterly repudiated his
association with Jung.
Joseph Campbell (1904-1987) was born in White
Plains, New York, U.S.A. He attended Dartmouth
College, graduating with a bachelor's degree in
English literature in 1925 and a master's degree
in Medieval literature in 1927. In 1934,
Campbell became a professor at Sarah Lawrence
College. In 1940, Campbell published a book,
The Hero with a Thousand Faces, in which he
elaborated and popularized Jung's idea of a
collective unconsciousness as a kind of mythic
self.
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But there is a fourth aspect to self which is not
fully expressed by Freud's idea of the 'id'.
Freuds idea of the id is an idea of a
primitive basis of self -- which probably Freud
owed to Friedrich Nietzsche. It is true that
Freud never acknowledged Nietzsche's influence.
But some have assumed that he was familiar with
Nietzsche's writings which became very popular in
intellectual circles in Europe after 1900 (the
year of Nietzsches death).
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was born near
Leipzig, Germany. In 1964, he attended the
University of Bonn and then went to the
University of Leipzig, studying philology (the
origin of words). In 1869, Nietzsche received
an appointment to the University of Basel as
professor of classical philology. His first book
was on aesthetics, entitled The Birth of Tragedy
out of the Spirit of Music. Due to ill health,
he resigned from the University of Basel in 1879.
The next ten years he traveled in Switzerland in
the summers and lived in Turin, Italy in the
winters. He wrote several books, focused around
a key idea that 'will-to-power' was the central
drive of the self.
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Among the psychologists, Alfred Adler emphasized
the idea of 'power' as central to personality. He
followed on the philosophy of Nietzsche. Adler
introduced the idea of 'inferiority complex' to
describe problems of low self-esteem. Alfred
Adler (1870-1937) was born in Austria. He
trained as a medical doctor. He helped found the
school of individual psychology. He collaborated
with Sigmund Freud as part of the psychoanalytic
movement. In 1912, he broke with Freud to
emphasize the social relationships as important
in psychology.
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The German philosopher Frederick Nietzsche
expounded upon the idea of 'will' as a kind of
act toward 'power' -- a 'will-to-power'. He saw
this idea as central to personality. The term
'will-to-power' is in English translated
literally from Nietzsche's German term
'willen-nach-kraft'. But a better English term
that fits more nicely into the modern language of
psychology is pride -- for the German concept
of 'will-to-power'. Most of Nietzsche's
expositions on the idea of 'willen-nach-kraft'
are descriptions of pride, human pride. Thus in
addition to the aspects of self which are
critical, mythic, or active, there is a fourth
aspect of the self which is 'pride', human pride.
Adler saw pride as essential to personality, as
in his concept of inferiority complex.
Nietzsches concept of animate pride is as a
sub-conscious drive for power to an organism
enabling willful action. Pride is Will-to-Power.
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SOCIAL BIOLOGY Dario Maestripieri, a
primatologist at the University of Chicago, has
observed a similar dilemma in humans and in
rhesus monkeys The paradox of a highly social
species like rhesus monkeys and humans is that
our complex sociality is the reason for our
success, but its also the source of our greatest
troubles, he said. Individuals dont fight
for food, space or resources, Dr. Maestripieri
explained. They fight for power. With power and
status, he added, theyll have control over
everything else. (Angier, 2008)
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• DECISION -- Decision-making requires a means-ends
  conceptualization of action. The means of an
  action is the way the action is carried out by an
  actor and the ends of an action is the purpose
  of the action to the actor.
• Decisions are formulated as a plan of
  means-toward-an-end. A plan is a formal
  'reasoning' about possible futures as means and
  ends for a decision maker
• - in order to satisfy both instinctive and
  learned needs as ends,
• - to plan action as means to bring about such
  futures.
• In addition to the means-ends dichotomy in a
  decision, Peter Kostenberg added a second
  dichotomy to a decision as ethics-courage. In a
  decision there should be a vision of an desired
  end, a means in reality to achieve it, an value
  judgment about the action (ethics), and the
  resources to carry out the action (courage).

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The point of this model of the mind is to
appreciate the difference between a mechanical
model of the mind, such as the spatial location
of functions, to a functional model of the mind
-- how cognitive processes operate. Mechanical
models show only where cognitive functions occur
spatially in the brain, but not how the cognitive
processes create mental reasoning. We have
used the major schools of modern psychology to
show how they can be integrated into a functional
model.
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Scientific Paradigms
In summary, we have examined the paradigms of
mechanism and function.
Next we will examine the paradigms of system and
logic.
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SUMMARY OF THE PARADIGM OF MECHANISM The five
key ideas that together make up the paradigm of
physical mechanism are (1) spatial
description, (2) temporal kinematics, (3)
force energy dynamics, (4) scales of
explanation, (5) causal prediction.

• SUMMARY PARADIGM OF FUNCTION
• The paradigm of biological function includes
  six complex sub-ideas
• Action,
• Behavior,
• Will,
• instinct,
• Reason
• Mind.

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UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS (OF THE FOUR PARADIGMS
OF SCIENCE) ENABLES A SCIENCE ADMINISTRATOR TO
INTERPRET THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF PEER
REVIEWERS IN MULT-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH PROPOSALS.
Next we will examine the paradigms of system
and logic.